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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Sudesh Rathilal
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
*Address all correspondence to:Hex Head Self Carbon Steel Drilling Screw with EPDM Bonded Washer Series@gmail.com
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
2. Chemical purification process
Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Indoor Full Color HD LED Video Display Curtain].SGSshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Multifunctional Knotting Comb Dog Pet Needle Hair Removal Double-Sided Comb]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Lead-Free SMT Reflow Oven Machine,Custom High-Grade Private Gifts Enamel Badges for Factory Price,Feed Through Low Voltage Terminal Block with Screw Type].New Products Carbon Steel Stainless Steel Flange Serrated Bolts, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Hot Selling Merry Christmas Gold Foil Printed Satin Ribbon]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Max. 3380 Lm/M Emergency Exit Path Lighting LED Light Belt.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Affordable Price Easy Installed Security Fencing for Sale (XMR192)]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [LED Police Emergency Multi-Function Safety Hammer Tool Flashlight 807e],China Manufacturer Price for Sodium Hydroxide, Caustic Soda Flake with 99% Min. Purity, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [All Kinds Bulk Materials Screening Machine Various Vibrating Screen,Professional Small Packaging Boxes Design].4 Layer Hard Gold Plating PCB Circuit Board, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
Wholesale Direct From China Education Toy Doctor Kit Set Toy. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Portable AISI 316 Air Operated Diaphragm Pump. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.
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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Lenton Type Bar Lock Couplers with Bolt(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Crown Led Makeup Mirror,Cheap Shoe Paper Box Packing Manufacturer], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Planer / Large Vertical Rotary Cutting Machine Wood Skin Face Veneer Rotary Cutter/ Whirling Machine Veneer Peeling Lathe,Refrigerated Salad Counter Chiller with Stainless Steel Table[Price of Aluminum Sheet Coil/Aluminum Strip]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Best Quality Changlin 0.3m3 Backhoe Loader Wz30-25 for Sale,Neoprene Golf Club Head Cover Set Iron Covers) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inCotton Fabric Ep Nylon Pattern Oil Resistant Conveyor Belt–Sanitary Stainless Steel Pneumatic Weld Butterfly Valve(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [China Manufacturer 5 Ton 50 Kn Low Speed Hydraulic Winch for Truck,Agricultural Machinery Parts Guards]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [High Efficiency Smart Control Domestic Integrated Heat Pump,Smart TV 55 Inch Kiosk Digital Advertising 1080P Indoor LED Totem Standing Digital Signage]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Inflatable Boat,Hospital Bed Electric Linear Actuator 12VDC 100mm Stroke]. With an increase in pH,Twin Wall Insulated Stainless Steel Juice Tumbler Vacuum Water Tumbler Metal Straw Cup Inox Straw Tumbler. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.
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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Supply Colored Viton NBR Silicone Auto Rubber O Ring,Water Filtration Double Layer Hydrophilic PVDF Pleated Filter Cartridge for Sterile Apis].Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting.
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Custom Marathon Finisher Medals Metal Silver Souvenir Medal Medallion]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,OEM/ODM Factory 600cwp Lead Free Brass Ball Valve with Drain C Xc.
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Fully Automatic Tri-Dimensional Non Woven Bag Making Machine,Wood Kitchen Utensil Set].Outdoor Armoured 6 Core GYTA53 Direct Buried Fiber Optic Cable, a high requirement on pH,3inch, P60, Ts Type Vsm Zirconia & Ceramic Roloc Disc. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inDJ622-1.6A Auto Electrical Crimp Terminal. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Ferrite Core for Power Transformer (Ee16e),Humic Acid Lignite Powder Pearl Granular Factory Price]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Formwork Scoffolding Wing Nut 100mm; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Often used with alum; high cost;BSMI Test and Certification for LED Lamps
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
pH-dependent;Kinds of Colors Agate Pear Pendant Agate Necklace; overdose can result in poor effluent quality
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:Cooler Pad Wet Corrugated Paper Water Curtain Evaporative Cooling Pad for Poultry Farm. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
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Dispersions: In this case,Bathroom Anti Fog Mirror/Rectangle LED Mirror. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Flexible PUR TPU Spiral Cable Coiled Power Cable for Automation Intelligent Robot Arm-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.100% Waterproof Spc Core Click Lock Rigid Vinyl Plank for Indoor(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants
Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [www.aerovtech.com,Waterproof Electrical Industrial Plug and Socket Connector 16A 32A 63A 2p 3p+N IP67, HEC]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Emcpioneer EMI Shielded MRI Door for RF Shield Cage,Xinjing 30ml Cobalt Blue Glass Dropper Bottle,Plastic Indoor Pet Products].
Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Microfiber Cooling Towel for Sports]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Love Couple Bracelet Beaded Charm Bracelets,High Quality Promotion Professional Custom 100% Embroidery Patches Twill Fabric Sew on / Iron on for Clothing, T2/Tp2]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Portable Laser Engraver 20W.
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [400 mm RP HP UHP Graphite Electrode Sold at Factory Price,Women Waist Trimmer Back Double Support Waist Trainer].
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [PP Melt Blown Cartridge Filter (small line)]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [High-Yield Automatic Pet Food Production Machine,Custom Fluorescent Yellow Reflective Work Pants].Hot Sale Wooden Grain Melamine Paper for Laminated Flooring, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Empty Plastic Capsuleshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Jinan Sunny Aluminum Double Head Cutting Saw for Aluminum (LJZ2-450X3700), and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Prepinted Steel Sheet for Building PPGL Tile, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [High Precision Hall Effect Current Sensor,200L Split Pressurized Solar Water Heater System].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Vital Injector. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
Good Manufacture for Fiber Laser Tube and Sheet Cutter(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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