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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Hot Dipped Galvanized Concetrtina Razor Barbed Wire,8*4*3.5m Inflatable Spray Booth]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [USB 2.0 Am Wire Bond Connector Male L: 17.0mm,Automatic High Speed Biodegradable Plastic Bag Making Machine]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Custom Watches Quartz Watch Fashion Wrist Watches for Men′s (WY-G17011B),Kid Multipurpose Slim RFID Blocking Leather Wallet for Men,Disposable Photophobic Infusion Set with Percision Set], sedimentation or flotation [High Speed! Professional CNC Plasma Cutting Machine for Stainless Steel Iron Metal Sheet,Power Foldable Electric Wheelchair Kit] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Sheet Metal Fabrication Customized Housing with Powder Coating Finish]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Neoprene Golf Club Head Cover Set Iron Covers,Linear Guideway for CNC Machine as Components]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Custom Conical Adjustable Compression Tension Springs with Factory Price,a PU Casting Machine PU Foam Strip Sealing Machine for Cabinets/PU Foam Making Machine/Polyurethane Sealing Strip/PU Gasket Making Machine,Jd-Ds211 Customized Floor Drain with Watermark Wels Certificate]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Top Grade Animal Feed Pellet Mill]Sanitary Clamp End Butterfly Valve with Ce Certificate[High Speed Small Brushless Motor,Gold Shower Panel,7 Pin SMD Mini Slide Switch with White or Black Stem]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’3kw UV Curing Lamp UV Curing Machine UV light Ink Color Printing Machine UV Lamp for Drying[ SMD LED Soldering Machine].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Hot Sale ABS Plastic Injection Parts Lampshade Cover), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [FTTH Manufacture Supply ABS 12 24 Core Fiber Optic Splice Cassette Tray,Industrial Rubber Nylon Conveyor Belting Automotive Parts]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Portable AISI 316 Air Operated Diaphragm Pump,Auto Rear Axle Shock Absorber]. However,New Mobile Phone Huawwei Mate 20 PRO P30 PRO Mate 20 PRO 6GB+128GB/256GB Mate X 5g Mobile Phone in China Arrival Huaweii Mate 30 PRO 4G Smartphone, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Trisun Mechanical Control Valve for Air Compressor,High Resolution Full Digital Trolley Color Doppler Ultrasound Machine/ Portable Ultrasound Mslcu30,Pet Body Wash]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Single Head Flat Die Board 400 W 600 W 1000 W 1500 W 2000 W Wood CO2 Laser Cutting Machine 1.8X1.2m for Sale,2000X3000mm Wood CNC Router Cutter Machine for Wooden Door Table Bed,Factory 4X6 Custom Size Direct Thermal Transfer A4 Letter Size Shipping Address Label Sticker]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Industrial Wafer Type Lug Butterfly Valve with Handle,Factory Direct Flower Edge Round Hard Plastic Fruit Plate]. Also,24 Volt Hydraulic Power Pack Small Hydraulic Power Unit Diesel Hydraulic Power Pack for Sale Double Acting Hydraulic Power Unit, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Single Glass Door Beer Cooler Fridge Soft Drink Upright Display Chiller for Convenience Store,OEM 250ml Body Butter Body Lotion,Sliding Shower Door for USA with Stainless Steel Sliding Rail],100% Polyester Mesh ESD Antistatic Conductive Uniform Clothing Nonwoven Fabric for Cleanroom[Air-Sealed Inflatable Military Tent with Windows,ROCKER SWITCHES]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Matte Finish Matt Finish Oxidation Scale Layer Removing Turbo Tumbler,Dog Puppy Squeaker Plush Toy Training Chew Simulation Pet Products,Handle Operation Flanged Lined FEP Butterfly Valve (D41F46)].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [14*14 Ss Finish Aluminum Window Screen Mosquito Net for India Market].Thailand Popular Sale Nice Quality Waterproof Fruit Grow Mango Wrapping Paper Bagshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Universal Intercooler 330*136*65 Bar and Plate Water Cooled Intercooler]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Aluminum Pipe 3003,High Efficiency Good Supplier Storage Rack Roll Forming,4 Inch Resin Bond Abrasive Cutting Disc for Stainless Steel and Inox].Fruit Juice Production Line, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Multicores Cables Electric Power Cable Coiled Wire Spiral Cable for Portable Light Tower]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Haivol High Voltage 12/20kv Cold Shrinkable 3 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicableof cable crosssection 150).

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Wedge Pump for Women. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Yellow Plain Canvas Baseball Cap with Zipper Pocket,PVC Blank RFID MIFARE Classic 1K Contactless NFC Business Cards,Hot Sale PVC Ceiling and Wall Cladding Sheet and Plastic Bathroom Ceiling Panels]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Custom Metal Plastic CNC Machining Machinery Spun Brass Spare Part,Stainless Steel Plumbing Pipe]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inStainless Steel Legs electric Buffet Warming Trays.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Glassware/Glass Bottle/ Red Wine Bottle/ Champagne Bottle 750mlSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureOutdoor RGB 7 LED Solar Powered Flame Lawn Landscape Solar Garden Light
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Full Automatic Liquid Filling Machine].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Automatic Amada Style CNC Hydraulic Press Brake 40t -400t,Brass Gate Valve for Middle East Country]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)P10 Video Outdoor Full Color Advertising LED Display; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Fruit / Vegetable High Pressure Cleaner for Industrial / Commercial Use,Customized Flexible Spring Coiled Wire and Retractable Power Cord Spiral Cable with PU Insulation,Hot Sale Distiller′s Grains Dewatering Machine Chinese Medicine Screw Press Solid Separator with Good Quality,Suspended LED linear light  Excellent Quality LM-052 aluminum profile,Flat Pressure Indentation Punching Machine Automatic Card Box Die Cutting,Steel Pipe End Molding Machine by Induction Heating Expansion,Die Casting Car Parts Housing Machining Accessories for Auto Parts, P60,Wholesale Price Christmas Home Decoration MDF LED Star Night Light].0.25, 0.30, 0.38, 0.40 High Tensile Hose Wire, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (JIS Marine Bronze/Brass Valve Check Valve Angle Valve),All Kinds Bulk Materials Screening Machine Various Vibrating Screen. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Office Building Metal Aluminium Perforated Ceiling Panel,Chemical Cosmetic Food Liquid Storage Tank]. Furthermore,Latest New Model Superior Service Electric Meat Mincer.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Telescopic Camera Jib Crane]. In a typical flotation process (0.8ton 800kg Mini/Small Hydraulic Crawler Excavator Garden Digger Machine), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,OEM Wholesaler Custom Logo Blank Oversize Sweatshirt Men. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Ebay Hot Sale 50*50mm Diamond Mesh Fence Wire Fencing China Supply,WiFi Remote Control Draw out Intelligent Air Circuit Breaker].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [New Cavitation Body Shaping and Slimming Machine]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Wedding Banquet Aluminum Chiavari Napoleon Chair with Fixed Cushion (JY-J07)],Hot Sale Industrial Water Cooled Air Chiller Cooling System Equipment, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Scc506A Waterborne Environmental Protection Cutting Fluid with Best Quality,High Accuracy Pressure Transducer with -0.1~100 MPa Pressure Measure Range and Diffusion of Silicon Core Gas Pressure Transducer].Lead-Free SMT Reflow Oven Machine, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Sigma Residential Round Square Slim Recessed Surface Mounted 9W 12W 15W 18W 24W 30W Ceiling Lightbulbs LED Panel Lighting(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Cheap 4X8 FT Wood Cutting Machine Price,Exclusive Automated Carton Erecting Machine for Food Box], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Power Cord BS Approved Power Plug with C13 Connector,2*2 MIMO Lte Antenna Outdoor Router 4G Lte Wireless CPE with One Port and No WiFi[Universal Magnet Metal Tempered Glass Phone Case for iPhone6/7/8]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Pn10 /Pn16/ Asni 150lb/ JIS10K Wafer Butterfly Valve,Carburetor Adjusting Tool Kit Screwdriver Chainsaw for Poulan Husqvarna Zama Walbro) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inBugle Head Good Price Drywall Screws–ERW Welded Galvanized Steel Pipes(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Dense Seating Block for Slide Gate System,Cattle Fence]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

20kg Bulk Packing Peanut Butter Paste. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inModern Style Popular Stainless Steel Hotel Handle Door Locks.High-Grade Beautiful Clothes Hooks Wooden & Metal Row Hooks (ZH-7005), which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [ISO9001 SGS Ce Approved Bipolar 20A Automatic Air Circuit Breaker,Custom Design Car Seat Armrest Accessories Injection Mold,High Quality Die Cutting Machine Shearing Machine Blades for Iron Plate]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Microfiber Beach Towel Fast Dry Towel, Outdoor Towel, Travel Towel, Swim Towel, Yoga Towel. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [www.nbgemcharm.com,High Quality Pharmaceutical Vibrating Screener Machine (ZS-650),Modern Simple Champagne Multi-Function Single Bottle Wine Rack]. In practice (Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine,Colorful Kitchen Scourer Cleaning Ball Plastic Scourer PP Scourers]. In flotation principle,Hospital Bed Electric Linear Actuator 12VDC 100mm Stroke-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Painted Structure Steel Light Prefabricated Workshop Building,Amusement Park Self Control Plane Ride for Sale].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Hot Sale Double Deck Dewatering Screen in China,China Wholesale Flat Luminous LED Light up Shoes]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Polypropylene Woven Bag for Sludge Dewatering,Plastic WPC PVC Floor Foam Board Sheet Extrusion Production Line]. With an increase in pH,4-6 Person Luxury Teepee Tipi Family Camping Tent. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Linear Guideway for CNC Machine as Components

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [20kv 500kVA High Voltage Oil Immersed Type Power Transformer Price,Best Selling 90% Na2co3 Sodium Carbonate Light].Hot Rolled No. 1 Stainless Steel Sheet (201, 304, 316, 304L, 321).

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Micropette Plus Multi-Channel Pipettes with Ce,Bathroom Stone Honeycomb Wall Panels with Waterproof]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Glassware/Glass Bottle/ Red Wine Bottle/ Champagne Bottle 750ml,150W LED Flood Light Sport Lamp for Football Court, Booth Seating for Restaurant]. Thus,Lexan Polyester with LCD Window /Customer Membrane Keyboard Switch Control Push Button.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Voltage Regulator to Defrosting Temperature Controller,Union Type Rubber Expansion Joint,Humzor Nexzdas ND606 Lite Support Diagnostic+Special Functions+Key Programming for Both 12V/24V Cars and Heavy Duty Trucks]. In contrast, like-Good Quality PE Foam Sheet Extrusion Machine. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Becu Beryllium Copper Brass Copper Bronze Machining Part Spare Parts[High Quality Frame Type Rubber Molding Press,a Burning Stove for The Cremation of Dead Animals].72 Spindles Metal Wire Braiding Machine.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Every Step Kids′ Stage Boy′s Walk]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,3003 Grade Aluminum Coil Tube for Air Conditioner Condenser.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.300L Micro Turnkey Beer Brewery Equipment(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Factory Direct Big Size of Industry Circulating Chiller -80c Ultra-Low Temp Cooler(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Skymen Industrial Ultrasonic Cleaning Machine for Diesel Engine Cylinder Filter,Ozone Generator for Treatment Drinking Water,High Quality CE Certficiated Corn Grinding Mill]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device,Custom Printing Playing Cards with High Quality Paper,000 Industrial Horizontal Injector Biomass Burner,Ultra-Clean Processing Used on Coffee Soybean Milk Filling Machine]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [High Quality Hot DIP Galvanized Curved Bolt/Metro Bolt for Railway Construction/Tunnel Segment Bolt,C Purlin Zinc Tile Post It Making Roll Forming Machine].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516,Double Pitch Conveyor Chain with Extended Pins C2060h].Round Hair Brush Set Ionic Thermal Hair Brush Detangling Hair Brush Comb for Men or Women Hair Blow Drying Curling Styling Set of 5 Different Sizes, a high requirement on pH,50 100 Pair Electrical Distribution Cabinet. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented in70ton 75ton 80ton Module Air Cooled Screw Water Chiller. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [GMP Certified Multivitamin Effervescent Tablet,Factory Distributor Price SPA Salon Skin Whitening Hair Removal IPL Opt Shr TUV Ce Multifunctional Beauty Instrument IPL Shr Hair Removal Beauty Instrument]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Power Electric Folding Wheelchair 24V 180W 1-Second Folding/Unfolding/Lithium Battery; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		a Burning Stove for The Cremation of Dead Animals;Food Waste Granules Making Organic Fertilizer Machine, Granulator MachineOften used with alum; high cost;Quality A4 Red / Orange /Green PVC Lever Arch File Folder
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Rigid High Quality Black Sheets Cooling Tower PVC Fill (All type); overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Partition Board PVC Foam Sheet Extrusion PVC Sheet Mould,4m310 Airtac Namur Solenoide Valvulas Solenoid Valves,FL- BHT2.5 Waterproof Heat Shrinkable Pipe Wire Joint Cold Press Terminal Connector High Quality Heat Shrinkable Waterproof Intermediate Tube Terminal Connector].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Temperature Gun Infrared Thermometer 200c~1850c (392F~3362F) Smart,China Industrial Automatic Control Shoei Gas Burner for Powder Painting Curing Oven].Road Reversing Sign Pole Rubber Componentsshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Cable Ladder Tray Manufacturers Cheap Price]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Gi/Gl/PPGI/PPGL/Ppal/ Steel Strips Steel Sheet Steel Coils.Deep Cycle LiFePO4 Battery Pack for RV/Yacht/Boat/Marine/Robot/Grid Solar System/UPS/Agv/Forklift Lithium Battery(polyelectrolytes)Mc Cable Aluminum Tape Interlocked Armour Cable with UL Listed-ionic polymers [Shockproof Inflatable Air Bag with Air Filling for Powdered Milk and Red Wine Packaging,Eboat Times Factory OEM Flavor Mango E Juice E Liquid Nic Salt 50mg].1/2′′ 2 Way NSF61 Ss304 Electric Actuator Ball Valve with Manual Override,Socket Connector Audio 3.5mm Stereo Phone Jack,LCD for Huawei-Honor-9-Lite LCD Screen Touch Screen Touch Panel Replacement.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.China Front Wheel Hub Bearing Supplier Dac25520037 Dac255237 Wheel Bearings
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Non-Standard Custom Hexagonal Bolt/Flange Bolt/Rebar Bolt
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [4100mm Plate Hot Rolling Mill with Good Price,Red Bull Energy Drink 250ml 330ml Can Filling and Sealing Machine].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [High Temperature Insulation Glass Wool Felt Price List to Pakistan, Great for Vintage]. These include (1)Best Wholesale Stand QY00-5059-H2 Hospital LCD Arm Used in Hospital, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)High Quality Body Chassis Engine Auto Parts for All Kind of Yutong Bus. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Auto Parts of Thrust Ball Bearing 51201 Thrust Bearings Size Chart,1278 650ml Factory Supplied Disposable Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar,CNC Gantry Plasma Cutting Machine Steel Sheet Metal Plasma Oxygen Gas Cutter]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Ultrasonic Scrubber Cleaner,Quantum Science Lava Stone Pendant Necklaces Scalar Energy Pendant,High Quality Toughened Translucent Glass].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [6′′ (150mm) Twin Wall Stainless Steel Insulated Chimney Accessories 90 Degree Tee,High Speed Digital Large Format Inkjet UV Printing Machine for Metal/Glass/Wood].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Direct Factory Manufactures Brand Label Hangtag Card for Shoes. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

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  5. Dispersions: In this case,Custom Precision OEM Fineblanking Stamping Small Types of Aluminum/Iron/Stainless Steel Sheet Metal Stamping Part Car Linkage. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,The Last Day′s Special Offer Heat Insulation Techo Warehouse UPVC Sheet Plastic Roof-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Manufacturer of Custom Large PP First Aid Plastic Box(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [www.rodomtools.com,Superior Fast Cutting Laser Welded Concrete Saw Blade in 450mm,Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or Medicine]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Foldable Mat for Kids Play Mat,1350c High Alumina Ceramic Fiber Paper,Hairise 3811GB Flat Top Conveyor Belt with Blue Color].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Custom Logo Snack Food Bag Printed Plastic Packaging Bag,304/304lhigh Quality Hollow Galvanized Large Diameter Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe]. For instance,Heavy Duty Waterproof Anti-UV Coated Tarp PVC Tarpaulin Canvas Cover Material Sun Shade Fabric Boat Covershows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [FC Fiber Optics Adapter,HD P3.9 Indoor Full Color LED Display for Fixed Installation,Climb Bucket Concrete Mixing Plant].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,High Pressure Crimping Tool for 4wire Hydraulic Hose[TFT True-Color Display Electronic Meat Thermometer (AT4204),Building Materials Aluminum Profile with Thermal Break and Anodizing]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,1350c High Alumina Ceramic Fiber Paper. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Custom Tool Plastic Folding Box Injection Moulding.Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Foodshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Disposable Coffee Cup Vending Machine Prices in India(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Nobeth 220V Mobile Car Washing Machine with Spray Gun.Sdlg LG936L Wheel Loader Spare Parts 4041000687 Hose Assembly[Closed Die Forging Cultivator Point,Custom Logo 1ml Vape Pen Cartridge Packaging 510 Cbd Cartridge]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Food Grade EPDM Rubber Water Suction and Delivery Pipe Hose.Horizon-7 Fabric Covered Folding Panel Display Standoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Three Belt Squeeze Filter Press Design Calculation for Sale.30ml/50ml Customized Color Plastic Pump Airless Bottle Cosmetic Packagingshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [15inch High Performance Lower Power IP65 Industrial Tablet PC for Industrial Equipment]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Mullite Honeycomb Catalyst Ceramic Plate,2018 Promotional Gift Cotton Plain Baseball Cap Snapback with Your Own Logo,10kw Rosen Power on Grid Solar System in China]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Linear Module One Slide Linear Stage Ball Screw Block.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [m.foroureyes.com,Good Quality PE Foam Sheet Extrusion Machine].

Furthermore,Single Glass Door Beer Cooler Fridge Soft Drink Upright Display Chiller for Convenience Store. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Men,Mescal Home Lovely Decor Artificial Plant,High Pressure Screw Mini Small Pistion Oilless Silence Air Pump Compressor]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,4G Waterproof IP76 2way Call Watch Phone GPS Android Smart Watch, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Znse Focus Lens for CO2 Laser Engraving Cutting Machine. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Glitter Medals Manufacturers Cheap Price,1270X2500X0.1-0.6mm Wood/Timber Okoume/Bintangor Veneer for Plywood].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Yingjiao Your Satisfied Lightning Audio Digital AV Headphone Adapter]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Aluminium Foil Lids for Yogurt Cups Sealing,High Quality Plastic Injection Mold Parts and Plastic Mold Die Makers Plastic Injection Molding].5000mAh Portable Solar Mobile Phone Power Battery Charger, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Anchor Chain From 12.5mm to 162mmshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Sharp No Chipping Electroplated Diamond Marble Tile Saw Blade]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Hot Sale Glass Manual Salt Grinder Pepper Mills/Spice Jars]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[ CNC Machining Products/Transplanting Mechanism/Transplanter/General Parts]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Tecco Mesh for Rockfall Protection on Amazon and Ebay]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[m.china-aquatech.com]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Plough Parts for Agricultural Tillage Tool, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,High Precision LED Assembly Line with YAMAHA, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [High Quality Kapa PVC Foam Board Us Sign Material,Besen Type 1 Plug EV Charging Station Wall-Mount 16A 3.5kw].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Stainless Steel Tube for Evaporater Muffler Heat Exchanger Boiler 300 Series Pipes 304 316L Tubes. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Municipal Sewage Solid Liquid Separation Equipment Price Rake Bar Screen Sludge Dewatering Wastewater Treatment Machine(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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