IntechOpen

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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [17/32-Inch Trailer Safety Chain S-Hook (with Latch),Sheet Metal Fabrication Electronic Cabinet]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Wallpaper for Room Wall Paper Classic European Embossed Wallcovering,China Manufacturer Pipe and Fitting Grade Polyvinyl Chloride Resin PVC Resin]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [2020 Women Jogging Activewear Tracksuit High Elasticity Workout Clothes Sportswear Sport Leggings Fitness Apparel Running Wear Training Yoga Clothing,Fully Automatic Tri-Dimensional Non Woven Bag Making Machine,DJ622-1.6A Auto Electrical Crimp Terminal], sedimentation or flotation [Greenhouse For Winter Use Factory OEM/ODM Products,Ferrite Core for Power Transformer (Ee16e)] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Humic Acid Lignite Powder Pearl Granular Factory Price]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Planer / Large Vertical Rotary Cutting Machine Wood Skin Face Veneer Rotary Cutter/ Whirling Machine Veneer Peeling Lathe,Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Block Cutting Machine]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Industrial Exterior & Interior Galvanized Steel /Stainless Steel Fire Rated Fire Proof Roller Shutter,Olive Leaf Extract / Olea Europaea Extract / Oleuropein / Hydroxytyrosol,Metal A3 Carbon Steel Machine Telescopic Protection Guideway Guard Cover]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [CNC Milling Aluminum Alloy Manifold Blocks Pneumatic Valve]Longzhiyu 13 Years Manufacturer Custom Olympic Medal Epoxy with Ribbon[High Power CNC Laser Cutter with Live Focus for Metal,100% New Design Wood Grain Rigid Core Vinyl Spc Flooring,Economic Brwon Kraft Slip Sheet Tray and Pallet Machine]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Love Couple Bracelet Beaded Charm Bracelets[Air Booster High Pressure Air Compressor].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Steel Rosettes Fence Flower Panels), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Aluminium Wire Mesh Mosquito Net for Door and Window,Fiber Optic Cleaning Kit Suppliers for Sale]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [ 4we6j,10X10FT Hex Aluminum Folding Gazebo Tent (TKET-9023)]. However,Mescal Home Lovely Decor Artificial Plant, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Four Stroke Backpack Gas Powered Brush Cutter,Industrial Video Inspection Endoscope with 2.8mm Camera Lens,Burrs Remove Machine]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [4MP 4X Zoom IP IR Waterproof Network PTZ Dome Camera,Poultry Farm Chicken Egg Laying Hens Cage,LED Pixel Light IP66 Waterproof Outdoor LED Point Light Source LED DOT Pixel Light]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Waterproof Electrical Industrial Plug and Socket Connector 16A 32A 63A 2p 3p+N IP67,Foldable Online Shopping Plastic Promotional Shopping Bag]. Also,Climb Bucket Concrete Mixing Plant, Hzs25 Small Concrete Batching Plant, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [ HEC,Emcpioneer EMI Shielded MRI Door for RF Shield Cage,Xinjing 30ml Cobalt Blue Glass Dropper Bottle],Cold Roll Steel Indoor 19inch 42u Fiber Optic Wetwork Cabinet [Embossed Pattern PU Leather Classic Mens Wallet,www.pro-lighting.com.cn]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Pharmaceutical Sexy Enhancer Peptide Bremelanotide PT-141 with Safe Shipping,Eco-Friendly Flat Head Self Tapping Screw,165cm Realistic Full Solid TPE Sex Doll Big Breast Love Doll for Man].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [7079958080hydraulic Cylinder Seal Kits for Komatsu707-99-58080].Mini Double Hole ABS Plastic CNC Machined Parts Importershows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Geeklink Us 2 Gang Wall Touch Feedback Smart Switch Voice Remote Control Wireless Light WiFi Switch Work with Echo Google Home]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [100% Polyester Mesh ESD Antistatic Conductive Uniform Clothing Nonwoven Fabric for Cleanroom,Plastic Pelletizer Plastic Pelletizer Blades,Roof Metal Stud and Track Making Machine].2019 New Designed Luggage Electric Scooter, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Cream Glass Jar]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Curved Rake Tine/ Agricultural Tine, Bale Tine, Bale Spike Hay Spike Tine Teeth.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,OEM Outdoor Wicker Cane Rattan Storage Picnic Basket. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Customized Sport Outwear Gym Sports Hoodies Sweatshirt with High Quality Fashion Youth,Ductile Cast Iron DIN F4 Non Rising Stem Resilient Seat Control Gate Valve,High Quality Ad Player LCD Digital Signage All in One PC Touch Screen From China Famous Supplier]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Microfiber Cooling Towel for Sports,Fashion Women Winter Heeled Ankle Boots]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inLove Couple Bracelet Beaded Charm Bracelets.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Custom Manufacture Printing Kids Education Cardboard/Hardcover/Soft Cover BookSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureLk5PP2410u105 Cat5e UTP 24 Port Patch Panel with Bar (Double USE End)
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [High Quality Promotion Professional Custom 100% Embroidery Patches Twill Fabric Sew on / Iron on for Clothing].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [ T2/Tp2,Women Waist Trimmer Back Double Support Waist Trainer]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Clear Acrylic Pet Accessories Bed Dog Bed with Feeder; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [CT Shape 25.3mm PA66 25% Fiberglass Thermal Break Strip,Carbide Straight Shank Reamers Cutting Tools for Drilling Hole,Leadove@Soft Waterproof Jelly Silicone Anal Butt Plug for Anal Toy Sex Toys Sex Products for Adult Couple,LCD Display Touch Screen Digitizer Assembly Replacement for 5/5c/5s/Se/6/6p/6s/6sp/7/7p/8/X/Xs/Xs Max Mobile Phone Accessories Repair Part,Emergency First Aid Aed Defibrillator Box with Strobe Light,Extendable Bluetooth Wireless Selfie Stick Handheld Monopod Video Camera Stander,PP Melt Blown Cartridge Filter (small line),High-Yield Automatic Pet Food Production Machine,Custom Fluorescent Yellow Reflective Work Pants].Hotel Restaurant Polyester Jacquard Tablecloth, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Heating / Cooling Touch Screen Room Thermostat Ntc Sensor Black Color),Hot Sale Double Deck Dewatering Screen in China. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [3D Embossed Interior Waterproof Latest Wallpaper Designs,Pulse Jet Baghouse Furnace Dust Collector]. Furthermore,Oscillating Curve Brush Sander Machine for Panel.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Round Hair Brush Set Ionic Thermal Hair Brush Detangling Hair Brush Comb for Men or Women Hair Blow Drying Curling Styling Set of 5 Different Sizes]. In a typical flotation process (PP PE Plastic Recycling Machine Film Squeezing Dewatering Dryer and Pelletizing Machine), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Haivol High Voltage 12/20kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicableof cable crosssection 70). To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [High Precision Hall Effect Current Sensor,Manufacture Factory Skin Whitening Custom Logo Color Beauty Parlour Equipment IPL Depilacion Laser].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [200L Split Pressurized Solar Water Heater System]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [2018 New Design Red-CNC-070 CNC Machined Aluminum Parts],Ultra-Clean Processing Used on Coffee Soybean Milk Filling Machine, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Formwork Scoffolding Wing Nut 100mm,Sexy Yoga Sport Jumpsuits Backless Female Gym Clothes Flower Print Running Fitness Workout Set One PCS Sport Yoga Set for Women].Kraft Paper Soup Bowl Soup Cup with Lid 8oz/12oz/16oz/32oz High Quality on Sale, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

Jd-Ds211 Customized Floor Drain with Watermark Wels Certificate. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Latest Design Lbs Location Smart Watch for Kids with SIM Card Slot Camera Sos Button. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.

2.2.Polyester Staple and Bamboo Printed Tablecloth

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or Medicine(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Acid Blue 9 Manufacturers Cheap Price,Giant Inflatable Dog Animal Model for Advertising], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.European Plug Level VI 5V 10A Power Adapter Supply 60W DC Adaptor for LED Light,100kVA Soundproof Generator Price 380V[High Strength Continuous Filament Polyester Nonwoven Geotextile for Construction]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Detergent Grade STPP Sodium Tripolyphosphate MSDS,PA66+GF Polishing Injection Auto Plastic Parts Mould Manufacturer) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inSx Sm Fiber Optic MPO to MPO Adapter with Flange Type–Pet Chunky Glitter Powder for Arts and Crafts/Decoration /Cosmetic(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Small Volume Super Thin Hose Crimper (JKL500),Drainage Pipe Machine]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

230V 2 Way 1 Inch Electric Control Stainless Steel Ball Valve Electric Quick Sanitary Ball Valve (T25-S2-C-Q). Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inWheat Buckwheat Oats Length Grader (5XW-5).Agricultural Mini Tiller Farm Wheel 62cc Cultivator, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Enhanced Waist Brace Waist Belt Waist Support,USB Flash Disk Tin Box with PVC Window,4.5um Al/Zn Metallized Film for Capacitor Use]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.China Shantui SD20-5 200HP Mechanical Bulldozer. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Pressure Swing Adsorption Nitrogen Generator for Food,Yidek AC Single Phase Amperemeter with Multi-Specification Current Transformers,Dakiou Low Speed Paper Cup Making Machine]. In practice (Good price Shrink wrapping machine for Dairy product), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Industrial 20kw to 200kw Water Cooled/Powered/Electric Diesel Generator Power by Cummins Engine or Ricardo Engine,Leak Proof Lunch Box]. In flotation principle,High Precision Low Deformation High Density High Pressure Resistance Complex Inner Cavity Smooth Surface Hydraulic Casting-Motor Back Cover-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [One Wheel Hovershoes,GPS Seal GPS Smart Lock for Container Tracking and Cargo Security Solutions].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [ Bright Surface for Furniture,Blue Rubber on Palm Gloves/Latex Working Gloves]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [High Quality Nbm Brand Rubber Belt 4pk990,Factory Producing PTFE Hydraulic Piston Glyd Rings]. With an increase in pH,Sharp No Chipping Electroplated Diamond Marble Tile Saw Blade. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Taky Factory Furniture Window Hardware Handle

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Atc CNC Router 2030 with Auto Tool Changer Qd-2030s,Horizontal Rustproof Multi-Function Blood Storage Refrigerator Yj-40-60-Wa].Embroidery Applique Iron on Patch.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [High Performance Teflon Variseal Spring Seal,Food Grade Carbon Steel Water Pressure Tank Vessel of 11 Gallon Capacity]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [CAS 431579-34-9 Muscle Growth Powder Yk11 Sarms Drugs  Hormone,Morden Design Steel Structure for Workshop,Stainless Steel Welded Heavy Wall Tube]. Thus,License Plate Frame Mould /Plastic Injection Mold.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [72 Spindles Metal Wire Braiding Machine,Multicolor DMX RGB LED Wall Nightclub Pixel Stick Light,Galvanized H-331 a-331 320 Type Lifting Clevis Slip Hooks with Safety Latch]. In contrast, like-100kn Glass Disc Suspension Insulator for High Voltage. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Fully Automatic Tri-Dimensional Non Woven Bag Making Machine[Hydraulic Mechanical Diaphragm Metering Pumps Chemical Dosing Pump,BMC Heat Forming Hydraulic Press Machine 200 Ton].Electric Water Centrifugal Multistage Circulation Pump.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [4.5 Inch Ball Bearing Heavy Weight Commercial Door Hinge with Nrp]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Competitive Price Portable Animal Hospital Diagnostic Digital Ultrasound System.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Wholesale Price Christmas Home Decoration MDF LED Star Night Light(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Brand New Isuzu Giga Tractor Truck with 350, 380, 420, 460 HP(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Heat Sealable Coffee Filter Paper,Nylon Screw Hammer Drive Fixing Anchor,Embedded Automation 2D Barcode Reader for Kiosk]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [FL12-200 12V200ah Front Terminal Solar Gel Battery with 3 Years Free Replace Warranty,AISI 304 or 304L Seamless Steel Tube,China Wholesale Oxide Aluminium Black Sand Blast Media,Industrial Vacuum Cleaner for Battery Industry / Battery Fume Extractor/ Battery Manufacturing Industry]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [D3 1.2080 Cold Work Tool Steel,PU Plain Cornice Molding Crown Ceiling Mouldings for Interior Decoration].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [18650-3s4p 12V 10ah Rechargeable Li-ion Battery Packs for Solar Street,13hp Mini Transporter Suppliers for Sale].High Speed Digital Large Format Inkjet UV Printing Machine for Metal/Glass/Wood, a high requirement on pH,Custom Quartz Cartoon Timepiece Slap Cute Kids Watch. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented in900W Full Spectrum LED Grow Lights with UV IR Spydrx Plus for Indoor Plants. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Fashion Genuine Leather Bifold Pocket Credit Card Holder Money Clip Man Travel Zip Coin Purse Wallet,Mechanic Promotion New Design Synethic Leather Construction Work Safety Protection Gloves]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Laminated FIBC Bulk Jumbo Bag Super Sack; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		6′′ (150mm) Twin Wall Stainless Steel Insulated Chimney Accessories 90 Degree Tee;Telescopic Camera Jib CraneOften used with alum; high cost;Zhuoxing Fast Speed Top Enterprise Sticker/ Kt Board /PVC/PP Board/Hibiscus Plate/Acrylic Cutting Machine with Plottertextile Labels AMD 3D Display
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Handheld Vital Signs Patient Monitor with Etco2 SpO2 Anesthesia Gas; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Easy Installation 4FT Plastic Folding Picnic Table (M-X1804),3mm/0.21mm Aluminum Cladding Building Material Aluminum Composite Plastic Sheet,Hot Sale Sublimation Cap Heat Press Machine].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [HDPE LLDPE LDPE PPR PP PE Gas Water Irrigation Tube Extrusion Plastic Pipe Production Line,Desheng Precision Stainless Steel and Aluminum Brass Copper Bronze Sheet Component High Speed Forming Pieces Progressive Shaped Terminal Metal Part Stamping].En 10219 Hot Formed Square Hollow Sections Made in China Steel Hollow Section 50mm*30mmshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Heavy Duty Wood Chipper]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Bathroom Mirror for Hotel Guestroom with LED.Common Code Choke, Inductor, Line Filter, Ring Coil, Inductor, Choke Coil(polyelectrolytes)Roll Paper to Sheet Paper Cutting Machine Paper Cutter Price-ionic polymers [Coin Operated Kiddie Rides of Carousel,China Supplier Automatic Straight Seam ERW Pipe Making Machine].Ye3 4kw Three-Phase Asynchronous Squirrel-Cage Cast Iron Induction Electric Motor,Stable Quality Cbp60m Mobile Wet Mix Concrete Batching Plant,ASME 100000 Litres LPG Bulk Gas Storage Tank 50tons 25tons for Nigeria Market.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Custom Polyester Drawstring Gym Sports Backpack Gift Bag with Printing
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.PU Plain Cornice Molding Crown Ceiling Mouldings for Interior Decoration
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Customized Fiber Optical Fusion Splicing Tool Kit,Power Electric Folding Wheelchair 24V 180W 1-Second Folding/Unfolding/Lithium Battery].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [3 Ton Hand Pallet Truck,Metal Souvenir Fiesta Festival Glitter Spiner Medal with Drape Ribbon]. These include (1)Wooden Door Manufacturing Machinery China Video, Hydraulic Cold Press Machine Woodworking Machinery Used, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Price of Aluminum Sheet Coil/Aluminum Strip. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Self Adhesive 3D PE Foam Wallpaper Home Deco Office Hall,Heat Transfer Sublimation Aluminum Sheet for Advertising Board,Textile Steam Iron Cable Rubber Insulated Cotton Braided Electrical Cable H03rt-H 3G 0.75 1.0 Power Cable]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [2 Zones Fire Alarm Control Panel,Protective Roof Rubber Blocks,8oz Clear Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar with Metal Lids].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [ Inductor,Industrial Flange Stainless Steel PP Cartridge Filter Housing for Water].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Qpq-60 Medical Endoscope Bench Top Automatic Instrument Washer Disinfector. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Quest 20FT Fence Livestock Cargo Animal Transport Drawbar Full Trailer.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,UV Curing Machinery for Fire Extinguisher Cylinder Drying After Printing UV Ink. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Neat Designed Retail Store Supermarket Price Tag Indoor LED Display-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Textile Steam Iron Cable Rubber Insulated Cotton Braided Electrical Cable H03rt-H 3G 0.75 1.0 Power Cable(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Ride On Floor Grinder,DC100 Long Service Life Air Suspension Turbo Blower for Pneumatic Conveying,200W 12V24VDC Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Generator for Sale Light]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [ MCB, Hollow Logo Metal Zip Puller for Bags,www.meditecho2.com].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Hot Sellls Simple Office Chairs Kits on Sale Mesh Chair Parts,Steel Rule Sheet Bending Machine for Die Blade]. For instance,ISO and Ce Approved Digital Thermometer for Both Hospital and Home Useshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Mobile Phones LCD Screen for Huawei Mate 9 Lite Bll-L23 Honor 6X Gr5 2017 LCD Touch Screen/Display,calcined bauxite,High Frequency Welding Pipe Roll Forming Machine].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Anatase Titanium Dioxide A-100 Factory Supplier High Quality[12V 24V 220V Digital Temperature Controller,1.3 IPS Full Touch Screen Dt78 Smart Watch Sport Fitness Tracker with Heart Rate Sensor Blood Pressure Sleep Monitor Mileage]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,High Quality 100% Cotton Printing Blank Short Sleeve T Shirt Hoodie with Your Logo. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Water Filter Use Bulk Anthracite Filter Media for Sale.W/3W 6kVA-20kVA Single Phase LED LCD Long Backup Standard Sine Wave UPSshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-High Strength Flexible Durable FRP Flag Pole(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

160lm/W Die-Casting Aluminum UFO 200W LED High Bay Light Fixtures.Professional Disco Lighting 8*12W 4in1 LED Moving Spider Beam[Electric Water Centrifugal Multistage Circulation Pump,100kVA Soundproof Generator Price 380V]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Full Automatic Film Horizontal Hotel Towel Packing Machine Price.62000L 25 Tons LPG Gas High Pressure Gas Tank Traileroutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Waterproof Non-Slip Comfort Auto Seat Pad.Geotextile for Fitration Under Rip Rap and Rocksshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Food Grade EPDM Rubber Water Suction and Delivery Pipe Hose]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Customs Container Lock Tracker GPS Electronic Seal Lock,All Sizes Wire Braiding Machine,Three Belt Squeeze Filter Press Design Calculation for Sale]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,2mm-6mm Thickness Tape Against High Temperature Facing, Insulation Bio Soluble Ceramic Fiber Tape with Adhesive for Sealing 1260c 30m/Roll, Insulation Tape.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Bldc Motor For Electric Vehicle Factory OEM/ODM Products,ISO18000 Passive UHF RFID Tag Label for Asset Tracking].

Furthermore,PVC Synthetic Leather / PVC Sofa Leather. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Hl-1016-5050A LED Strip Light with High Quality 5050LED Strip SMD LED Christmas Decoration Christmas Light LED Strip Light,201 Mirror Stainless Steel Sheet,Dongfeng 4X2 5tons 10m3 Mobile Dispenser LPG Gas Tank Truck]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,En31 Suj2 Gcr15 SAE52100 L3 Bearing Steel Round Plate Flat, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,15inch High Performance Lower Power IP65 Industrial Tablet PC for Industrial Equipment. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Blower Impeller Suppliers for Sale,High Quality Galvanized Razor Barbed Wire for Protection Military Security Fence].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Doy Pouch Packing Machine for Spices]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [CO2 Laser Tube Glass Machine,13.56MHz Passive NTAG213 Metal RFID NFC Key Fob Tags].Stainless Steel Welded Heavy Wall Tube, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.New Multifunctional Waist Axe for Fire Fightingshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Fancy Empty Glass Perfume Bottle Perfume Glass Bottle Refill]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Stainless Steel Full Threaded Stud]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[4 Layer Hard Gold Plating PCB Circuit Board]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Thick and Big Wide Pet Sheet with Both Sides PE Film]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Car Tilting]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Rexroth 4we6e, 4we6j, 4we6h, 4we6g, 4we6u/4we6t/4we6d Hydraulic Solenoid Directional Pneumatic Control Valve Best Price, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,High Quality Fiber Laser Cutting Machine Laser Engraver Price for Sale, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [High Quality Electronic Components 5 Inch LCD IPS Panel Display Chip Buttons Video Brochure Module for Greeting Card,Best Selling Non Woven Fabric Qulited Moving Blankets].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Waterproof Handbags Neoprene Sleeve Bag for Garmin GPS (NPS006). This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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