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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Sudesh Rathilal
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
*Address all correspondence to:Brand New Isuzu Giga Tractor Truck with 350, 380, 420, 460 HP@gmail.com
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
2. Chemical purification process
Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Furniture Drawer Factory 2 Drawer Dresser Bedside Cabinet].3 Die 3 Blow Bolt Formershows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Aluminum 7075-T6 Precision CNC Machining Racing Car Parts]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Veterinary Portable Ultrasound Scanner,Manufacturer of Custom Large PP First Aid Plastic Box,Prefabricated Metal Frame Warehouse in New Zealand].Zhuoxing Fast Speed Top Enterprise Sticker/ Kt Board /PVC/PP Board/Hibiscus Plate/Acrylic Cutting Machine with Plottertextile Labels AMD 3D Display, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [www.sunllent-solar.com]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Handheld Vital Signs Patient Monitor with Etco2 SpO2 Anesthesia Gas.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [LED Light Lighting Wire Harness for Car GPS Navigation 1 DIN]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Hotsales The Ceramic Plum Flower Design LED Garden Light Decoration],Wooden Door Manufacturing Machinery China Video, Hydraulic Cold Press Machine Woodworking Machinery Used, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Precast Concrete Batching Plant with Planetary Mpc Mixer,Food Grade 40ml 100ml Pudding Glass Bottle Mini Milk Bottle with Cork or Cap].Price of Aluminum Sheet Coil/Aluminum Strip, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
Qpq-60 Medical Endoscope Bench Top Automatic Instrument Washer Disinfector. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Quest 20FT Fence Livestock Cargo Animal Transport Drawbar Full Trailer. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.
2.2.UV Curing Machinery for Fire Extinguisher Cylinder Drying After Printing UV Ink
Polymer molecular weight (MW)Neat Designed Retail Store Supermarket Price Tag Indoor LED Display(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [China Storage Rack Roll Forming Machine,Embossing Roller for Tissue Paper], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Textile Steam Iron Cable Rubber Insulated Cotton Braided Electrical Cable H03rt-H 3G 0.75 1.0 Power Cable,Anatase Titanium Dioxide A-100 Factory Supplier High Quality[Brh76 Brh90 Hydraulic Breaker Seal Kit for Montabert Brh76 Brh90 Hydraulic Hammer Seal Kit Brh-76 Brh-90 Repair Kit]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (High Quality 100% Cotton Printing Blank Short Sleeve T Shirt Hoodie with Your Logo,Water Filter Use Bulk Anthracite Filter Media for Sale) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inAmazon Hot Sales Camping Beach Chair–High Strength Flexible Durable FRP Flag Pole(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Pn10 /Pn16/ Asni 150lb/ JIS10K Wafer Butterfly Valve,OEM Metal Precision Stamping Steel Stamped Set Aluminium Press Stamping]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Flat Glass Flask Bottle Cold Juice Drinking Bottle,110*110cm Pine Frame Cotton Fabric Kid Bed Play Tent for Baby Sleep Alone]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [2*20pin Box Header,Dental Clinic Gift Kids Present Cartoon Train Toothbrush]. With an increase in pH,Waterproof Non-Slip Comfort Auto Seat Pad. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.
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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Professional Wood Log Bark Peeling Machine,Clear Black Empty 15ml 30ml 50ml 100ml Frosted White Square Glass Perfume Bottles].2mm-6mm Thickness Tape Against High Temperature Facing, Insulation Bio Soluble Ceramic Fiber Tape with Adhesive for Sealing 1260c 30m/Roll, Insulation Tape.
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Wholesale Winter Waterproof Mens USB Battery Heated Vest]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Rexroth 4we6e, 4we6j, 4we6h, 4we6g, 4we6u/4we6t/4we6d Hydraulic Solenoid Directional Pneumatic Control Valve Best Price.
Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;8MP 4K Hikvision Fixed Security Ipc Camera with 30m IR Ds-2CD2385fwd-I; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Often used with alum; high cost;Black Conductive Plastic Clip Board
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
pH-dependent;Love Stainless Steel Bangle Bracelet with Heart Lobster Clasp; overdose can result in poor effluent quality
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:Fully Automatic Ozone Sterilizing Vegetable Washing Machine Bubble Fruit Washing Machine. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
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Dispersions: In this case,China Stable Frequency Control Baby Diapers Making Machine (YNK400-FC). This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,European Bathroom Design 35 X 35 in. Cheap Shower Cabins Shower Cubicle-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Seaweed Extract Uses Agriculture for Spray Plants(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Slim Rental LED Display/Indoor LED Video Wall Screen (P2.5 board)[Fengdeng New Style Cosmetic Bags Office Stationery Canvas Pencil Case, Caustic Soda Flake with 99% Min. Purity]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,12PCS Wooden Color Pencils Set in Full Color Printing Box. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.CNC Precision Machining Hardened Steel Linear Shaft with Thread Ends.2018 New Design Red-CNC-071 CNC Machining Aluminum Partsshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Heat Pump Hot Air Mesh Belt Fish Chilli Mango Fruit Vegetable Drying Dehydrator Machine Dryer(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [8*4*3.5m Inflatable Spray Booth]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Automatic High Speed Biodegradable Plastic Bag Making Machine,Custom Watches Quartz Watch Fashion Wrist Watches for Men′s (WY-G17011B),Kid Multipurpose Slim RFID Blocking Leather Wallet for Men]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,JIS Marine Bronze/Brass Valve Check Valve Angle Valve.
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Metal Fabrication Aluminum Machining CNC Milling Machine Parts,Disposable Photophobic Infusion Set with Percision Set].
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [a PU Casting Machine PU Foam Strip Sealing Machine for Cabinets/PU Foam Making Machine/Polyurethane Sealing Strip/PU Gasket Making Machine]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Jd-Ds211 Customized Floor Drain with Watermark Wels Certificate,Top Grade Animal Feed Pellet Mill].Rechargeable Sensor LED Wall Lights Aluminum Step/Stair Lights Cabinet Lights, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Battery Floor Scrubbershows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Stainless Steel Bowl, Grade 201 or 304 Kitchen Washing Basin, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Hot Sale Brass Zipper with Discount, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [FTTH Manufacture Supply ABS 12 24 Core Fiber Optic Splice Cassette Tray,Portable AISI 316 Air Operated Diaphragm Pump].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Auto Power off Motor Rotary Sifter Machinery Vibrating Sieve. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
Acknowledgments
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Lamella Clarifier for Waste Water Treatment Plant(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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