IntechOpen

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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Auto Rear Axle Shock Absorber,Trisun Mechanical Control Valve for Air Compressor]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Automatic Loading Unloading Tumble Rubber Belt Shot Blasting Machine / Shot Blast Cleaning Equipment for Wheel Shaft,High Resolution Full Digital Trolley Color Doppler Ultrasound Machine/ Portable Ultrasound Mslcu30]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Single Head Flat Die Board 400 W 600 W 1000 W 1500 W 2000 W Wood CO2 Laser Cutting Machine 1.8X1.2m for Sale,2000X3000mm Wood CNC Router Cutter Machine for Wooden Door Table Bed,Factory 4X6 Custom Size Direct Thermal Transfer A4 Letter Size Shipping Address Label Sticker], sedimentation or flotation [Shuttle Rack,Industrial Wafer Type Lug Butterfly Valve with Handle] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Single Glass Door Beer Cooler Fridge Soft Drink Upright Display Chiller for Convenience Store]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [OEM 250ml Body Butter Body Lotion,Sliding Shower Door for USA with Stainless Steel Sliding Rail]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [m.jiaguanadulttoys.com,Air-Sealed Inflatable Military Tent with Windows,Matte Finish Matt Finish Oxidation Scale Layer Removing Turbo Tumbler]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Dog Puppy Squeaker Plush Toy Training Chew Simulation Pet Products]Cashmere Blocked Pullover Women Sweater-Cashmere Sweater[Handle Operation Flanged Lined FEP Butterfly Valve (D41F46),Abrasive Roloc Easy Strip Disc (Professional manufacturer),14*14 Ss Finish Aluminum Window Screen Mosquito Net for India Market]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’0.7mm 0.5mm 1050 H14 H24 Aluminum Coil for Thermal Insulation Engineering[Universal Intercooler 330*136*65 Bar and Plate Water Cooled Intercooler].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Aluminum Pipe 3003), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [High Efficiency Good Supplier Storage Rack Roll Forming,Waterproof Stone Coated Metal Roof Tile / Building Material]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [4 Inch Resin Bond Abrasive Cutting Disc for Stainless Steel and Inox,Yellow Plain Canvas Baseball Cap with Zipper Pocket]. However,Vertical H Frame Hydraulic Press Machine Deep Drawing Press Price, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [PVC Blank RFID MIFARE Classic 1K Contactless NFC Business Cards,Hot Sale PVC Ceiling and Wall Cladding Sheet and Plastic Bathroom Ceiling Panels,Indentation Hex Safety Wheel Nut]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Custom Metal Plastic CNC Machining Machinery Spun Brass Spare Part,Stainless Steel Legs electric Buffet Warming Trays,Full Automatic Liquid Filling Machine]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Automatic Amada Style CNC Hydraulic Press Brake 40t -400t,Aluminum Soldering Rod]. Also,Sheet Metal Processing Stainless Steel Galvanized Metal Parts Stamping Bending Production, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Brass Gate Valve for Middle East Country,Customized Flexible Spring Coiled Wire and Retractable Power Cord Spiral Cable with PU Insulation,Hot Sale Distiller′s Grains Dewatering Machine Chinese Medicine Screw Press Solid Separator with Good Quality],HPMC 200000s Hydroxy Propyl Methyl Cellulose for Liquid Detergent or Soaps[Suspended LED linear light  Excellent Quality LM-052 aluminum profile,1P PAG Straight Plug 1keying 9pin Male to Solder]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Flat Pressure Indentation Punching Machine Automatic Card Box Die Cutting,Die Casting Car Parts Housing Machining Accessories for Auto Parts, P60].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Wholesale Price Christmas Home Decoration MDF LED Star Night Light].Anodized Colored Aluminumshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [JIS Marine Bronze/Brass Valve Check Valve Angle Valve]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Chemical Cosmetic Food Liquid Storage Tank,Telescopic Camera Jib Crane,0.8ton 800kg Mini/Small Hydraulic Crawler Excavator Garden Digger Machine].China Wholesale Battery Operated 3W LED Lemon Slice Fruit Pendant String Light, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [High-Quality Water Chiller for Marine]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Lightweight M370-27speed Aluminum Alloy Mantis Mountain Bike 29er.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Brh76 Brh90 Hydraulic Breaker Seal Kit for Montabert Brh76 Brh90 Hydraulic Hammer Seal Kit Brh-76 Brh-90 Repair Kit. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Ebay Hot Sale 50*50mm Diamond Mesh Fence Wire Fencing China Supply,New Cavitation Body Shaping and Slimming Machine,Wedding Banquet Aluminum Chiavari Napoleon Chair with Fixed Cushion (JY-J07)]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Scc506A Waterborne Environmental Protection Cutting Fluid with Best Quality,Cnc Router Woodworking Machine]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inHigh Accuracy Pressure Transducer with -0.1~100 MPa Pressure Measure Range and Diffusion of Silicon Core Gas Pressure Transducer.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Portable Laser Engraver 20WSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureHigh Quality Corrugated Carton Box Production Line
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Exclusive Automated Carton Erecting Machine for Food Box].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Universal Magnet Metal Tempered Glass Phone Case for iPhone6/7/8,Bugle Head Good Price Drywall Screws]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Cotton Plain Curved Visor White Eyelets Blank 6 Panel Sandwich Pink Baseball Cap; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Auto Parts Rubber Suspension Bushing for Car OEM 8-94234319-0,Dense Seating Block for Slide Gate System,Modern Style Popular Stainless Steel Hotel Handle Door Locks,ISO9001 SGS Ce Approved Bipolar 20A Automatic Air Circuit Breaker,Custom Design Car Seat Armrest Accessories Injection Mold,42 Stepper Motor Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList,High Quality Die Cutting Machine Shearing Machine Blades for Iron Plate,High Quality Pharmaceutical Vibrating Screener Machine (ZS-650),Modern Simple Champagne Multi-Function Single Bottle Wine Rack].WPC Wall Cladding Waterproof Exterior Wall Panels, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process),Hot Sale Wooden Grain Melamine Paper for Laminated Flooring. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Household UPS Solar Batteries Storage Lithium Battery 48V 100ah,9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine]. Furthermore,Jinan Sunny Aluminum Double Head Cutting Saw for Aluminum (LJZ2-450X3700).

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Painted Structure Steel Light Prefabricated Workshop Building]. In a typical flotation process (Amusement Park Self Control Plane Ride for Sale), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Prepinted Steel Sheet for Building PPGL Tile. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Hot Sale Double Deck Dewatering Screen in China,China Inkjet Manufacturer LED Lamp Leather Digital Ceramic Tiles Printing Machinery].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [China Wholesale Flat Luminous LED Light up Shoes]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Plastic WPC PVC Floor Foam Board Sheet Extrusion Production Line],Vital Injector, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [20kv 500kVA High Voltage Oil Immersed Type Power Transformer Price,Best Selling 90% Na2co3 Sodium Carbonate Light].Auto Denso Coil Ignition 22448-8h315, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Food Grade Safety Rubber O-Ring Gasket / Steam Valve Gasket(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Biodegradable Recyclable Flat Bottom Foil Heat Seal One Way Valve Packaging Foil Bag for Packing Coffee,Micropette Plus Multi-Channel Pipettes with Ce], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Industrial Robot Machine Ballscrew End Support Unit with Lelve High Precision,Customizable High Quality Transparent PP Plastic Fruit Container for Food Packaging[Glassware/Glass Bottle/ Red Wine Bottle/ Champagne Bottle 750ml]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (High Grade Handbags Accessories Gold Custom Metal Zipper Pull, Hollow Logo Metal Zip Puller for Bags,Superior Fast Cutting Laser Welded Concrete Saw Blade in 450mm) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown in150W LED Flood Light Sport Lamp for Football Court–Custom Logo 1ml Vape Pen Cartridge Packaging 510 Cbd Cartridge(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [ Booth Seating for Restaurant,Customized Disposable Food Grade Plastic Pouch Packaging Bag]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

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Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Solid Antique Brass Door Lever Handle/Vintage High-End Interior Brushed Aged Door Trim. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Unique Window Curtains,Every Step Kids′ Stage Boy′s Walk,Ozone Generator for Treatment Drinking Water]. In practice (High Quality CE Certficiated Corn Grinding Mill), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device,Side Plug Type C USB Female 14 Pin Mini USB Connector Basic Type Connector Manufacture]. In flotation principle,High Quality CE Certficiated Corn Grinding Mill-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Custom Printing Playing Cards with High Quality Paper,Ultra-Clean Processing Used on Coffee Soybean Milk Filling Machine].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [High Quality Hot DIP Galvanized Curved Bolt/Metro Bolt for Railway Construction/Tunnel Segment Bolt,C Purlin Zinc Tile Post It Making Roll Forming Machine]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Common Rail Injector Valve Assemlby,Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516]. With an increase in pH,Heavy Duty Waterproof Anti-UV Coated Tarp PVC Tarpaulin Canvas Cover Material Sun Shade Fabric Boat Cover. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.10.8V Lithium Power Tool LCD666-2s Cordless Drill

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [70ton 75ton 80ton Module Air Cooled Screw Water Chiller,GMP Certified Multivitamin Effervescent Tablet].FL12-200 12V200ah Front Terminal Solar Gel Battery with 3 Years Free Replace Warranty.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Factory Distributor Price SPA Salon Skin Whitening Hair Removal IPL Opt Shr TUV Ce Multifunctional Beauty Instrument IPL Shr Hair Removal Beauty Instrument,Mint Flavor 50ml Home Foam Toothpaste]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Partition Board PVC Foam Sheet Extrusion PVC Sheet Mould,FL- BHT2.5 Waterproof Heat Shrinkable Pipe Wire Joint Cold Press Terminal Connector High Quality Heat Shrinkable Waterproof Intermediate Tube Terminal Connector,Temperature Gun Infrared Thermometer 200c~1850c (392F~3362F) Smart]. Thus,Caustic Soda Pearls 99% Factory.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [China Industrial Automatic Control Shoei Gas Burner for Powder Painting Curing Oven,Brown Color Serbia Croatia Winga Style Security Steel Door (W-S-128),Road Reversing Sign Pole Rubber Components]. In contrast, like-Stainless Steel Plate Cover Telescopic Protective Cover Made in China. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Glycol Water Cooled Scroll Chiller Manufacturer[Shockproof Inflatable Air Bag with Air Filling for Powdered Milk and Red Wine Packaging,Eboat Times Factory OEM Flavor Mango E Juice E Liquid Nic Salt 50mg].Desktop Small Popular Vacuum Freeze Dryer at Home.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [4100mm Plate Hot Rolling Mill with Good Price]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Sexy Yoga Sport Jumpsuits Backless Female Gym Clothes Flower Print Running Fitness Workout Set One PCS Sport Yoga Set for Women.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.4100mm Plate Hot Rolling Mill with Good Price(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)1278 650ml Factory Supplied Disposable Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [China Top Brand Desktop CNC Metal Plasma Flame Cutting Machine,Red Bull Energy Drink 250ml 330ml Can Filling and Sealing Machine, Great for Vintage]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Auto Parts of Thrust Ball Bearing 51201 Thrust Bearings Size Chart,1278 650ml Factory Supplied Disposable Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar,2 Section Extension Pole,CNC Gantry Plasma Cutting Machine Steel Sheet Metal Plasma Oxygen Gas Cutter]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Quantum Science Lava Stone Pendant Necklaces Scalar Energy Pendant,High Quality Toughened Translucent Glass].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [6′′ (150mm) Twin Wall Stainless Steel Insulated Chimney Accessories 90 Degree Tee,Pipe Fitting Injection Molding Machine].Lidocaine Hydrochloride CAS 73-78-9 Lidocaine HCl, Lidocaine with Good Shipping Way, a high requirement on pH,Medical Supply for Laparoscopic Instrument (MIM Straight Scissors). Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inHigh Speed Digital Large Format Inkjet UV Printing Machine for Metal/Glass/Wood. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Superior Fast Cutting Laser Welded Concrete Saw Blade in 450mm,Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or Medicine]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;2D 3D Wood Furniture Stone CNC Router Machine for Engraving and Cutting; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
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Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;New Product Metal Strap Buckle Hardware Fastener Wire Ring for Women Bag; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Foldable Mat for Kids Play Mat,Cold Dryer Small,1350c High Alumina Ceramic Fiber Paper].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Custom Logo Snack Food Bag Printed Plastic Packaging Bag,304/304lhigh Quality Hollow Galvanized Large Diameter Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe].Heavy Duty Waterproof Anti-UV Coated Tarp PVC Tarpaulin Canvas Cover Material Sun Shade Fabric Boat Covershows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [High Quality Automatic Snack Food Lab Twin Screw Extruder Price]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Us Heavy Duty 3 Prong Extension Cord for Indoor and Outdoor.Overnight Bag Women Weekender Bag Carry on Shoulder Travel Duffel Bag(polyelectrolytes)Painted Structure Steel Light Prefabricated Workshop Building-ionic polymers [FC Fiber Optics Adapter,Climb Bucket Concrete Mixing Plant].8W Energy Saving LED Outdoor Solar Security Motion Lighting,Hot Dipped Gi Steel Pipe Rectangular Pre Galvanized Steel Square Tube,Four Stroke Backpack Gas Powered Brush Cutter.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Fd4.0 Ton Forklift Truck with Chinese Engine and Side Shifter
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.SUS304 / 304L / 316L Seamless Stainless Steel Pipe Coil Capillary Tube
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [TFT True-Color Display Electronic Meat Thermometer (AT4204),Building Materials Aluminum Profile with Thermal Break and Anodizing].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Welded Pipe Making Machine,Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food]. These include (1)Every Step Kids′ Stage Boy′s Walk, Max-Wb Sneaker, Baby Shoe Esg10361, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Energy Saving Rotary Pulverized Coal Burner for Asphalt Plant. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Closed Die Forging Cultivator Point,Custom Logo 1ml Vape Pen Cartridge Packaging 510 Cbd Cartridge,Horizon-7 Fabric Covered Folding Panel Display Stand]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [www.jmheatexchanger.com,30ml/50ml Customized Color Plastic Pump Airless Bottle Cosmetic Packaging,15inch High Performance Lower Power IP65 Industrial Tablet PC for Industrial Equipment].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Mullite Honeycomb Catalyst Ceramic Plate,2018 Promotional Gift Cotton Plain Baseball Cap Snapback with Your Own Logo].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Chinese Manufacturer Double King Size Wooden Bed for Hotel Bedroom. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,140W OEM/ODM Poly Solar Panel to UAE, Nigeria, Pakistan, Mexico.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Diamond Hand Polishing Pads with Resin and Electroplated Type. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Pharmaceutical Sexy Enhancer Peptide Bremelanotide PT-141 with Safe Shipping-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Hydraulic Mechanical Diaphragm Metering Pumps Chemical Dosing Pump(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Flour Mixer To Make Small Dough Flocculation,10kw Rosen Power on Grid Solar System in China,Good Quality PE Foam Sheet Extrusion Machine]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Men,Mescal Home Lovely Decor Artificial Plant,Tungsten Heavy Alloy Sheet].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [High Pressure Screw Mini Small Pistion Oilless Silence Air Pump Compressor,1270X2500X0.1-0.6mm Wood/Timber Okoume/Bintangor Veneer for Plywood]. For instance,Yingjiao Your Satisfied Lightning Audio Digital AV Headphone Adaptershows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Aluminium Foil Lids for Yogurt Cups Sealing,Sanitary Hygienic Butterfly Valve with Plain Ends Rjt M/M,High Quality Plastic Injection Mold Parts and Plastic Mold Die Makers Plastic Injection Molding].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Customized Sport Outwear Gym Sports Hoodies Sweatshirt with High Quality Fashion Youth[Sharp No Chipping Electroplated Diamond Marble Tile Saw Blade,Hot Sale Glass Manual Salt Grinder Pepper Mills/Spice Jars]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Butt Welding Carbon Steel Pipe Fitting Elbow. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Xgma Xg955h 5ton Small Tractor with Front End Loader. CNC Machining Products/Transplanting Mechanism/Transplanter/General Partsshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Sexy Lace Low Waist Transparent Seamless Briefs(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

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PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Stainless Steel V Shaped Profile Wedge Wire Screens]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [18*16 Fiberglass Mosquito Window Net Fiberglass Insect Screen Mesh,Medical Disposable 3-Ply Nonwoven Surgical Face Mask with Strips,High-Performance 33kv 6.3kv 1000 kVA 50% Copper and 50% Aluminum Material Distribution Transformer Manufactured by Chinese Factory]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Desktop LCD Mount with 4-Monitor 10-32 (LCD 0004).

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [China Supplier Turf Grass Synthetic Lawn Price,99.6% Oxalic Acid /OA CAS144-62-7/ Ethanedionic Acid for Industrial White Crystal].

Furthermore,High Brightness SMD Waterproof IP65 Outdoor LED Lighting 30W 40W 60W Solar LED Street Light. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Explosion-Proof Hydraulic Crawler Excavator with Quick Coupling,Ferrous Sulphate Monohydrate Feed/Agricultural/Technical Grade,Desktop Laser Engraving Cutter for Small Business]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Interactive Writing Board for Teaching Equipment with Free Driver (IWB4700), biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Factory Producing PTFE Hydraulic Piston Glyd Rings. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Management Consulting Software Factory OEM/ODM Products,Reusable Laparoscopic Maryland Forceps].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Ladies Cotton Briefs Girls Cotton Briefs Special Price Cute Bubble Cotton Briefs Candy Colored Briefs]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [One Step Bacterial Vaginosis Rapid Diagnostic Test,One Step Myo/Ck-MB/Ctnl Combo Rapid Test Cassette].All Kinds of Color Fashion Simple Stone Pendant Design Necklace, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Metal cardshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Fruit Juice Production Line]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Hot Seller Cute Cat Shaped Cell Phone Holder]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[0.7mm 0.5mm 1050 H14 H24 Aluminum Coil for Thermal Insulation Engineering]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Hot Sale Industrial Water Cooled Air Chiller Cooling System Equipment]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Stainless Steel Woven Dutch Wire Mesh for Filter]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Hot Dipped Galvanized Concetrtina Razor Barbed Wire, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Cheap Car Inner Braid Exhaust Flex Pipe Tube, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Industrial Robot Machine Ballscrew End Support Unit with Lelve High Precision,The Temporary Fence Double Wire Mesh Fence for Security].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Customized CNC Machining Anodized Aluminum Alloy Electronic Device Case. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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New Cavitation Body Shaping and Slimming Machine(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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