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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Sudesh Rathilal
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
*Address all correspondence to:Eggs Vending Machines with Robotic Arm@gmail.com
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
2. Chemical purification process
Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Waterproof Electrical Industrial Plug and Socket Connector 16A 32A 63A 2p 3p+N IP67].Cnc Laser Cutter Pipe Factory OEM/ODM Productsshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [ HEC]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Emcpioneer EMI Shielded MRI Door for RF Shield Cage,Xinjing 30ml Cobalt Blue Glass Dropper Bottle,Embossed Pattern PU Leather Classic Mens Wallet].Asvel 6/12L Fresh Grain Dry Food Container Bin Rice Dispenser Transparent Plastic Storage Box for Storing Rice Flour Bean Pet Food Kitchen Equipment, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Glow Pvc Rigid Sheet]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Quick-Insertion RO Water Filter Element.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [PP Melt Blown Cartridge Filter (small line)]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [High-Yield Automatic Pet Food Production Machine],Tantalum Clad Steel Plate Sheet Manufacturer, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Custom Fluorescent Yellow Reflective Work Pants,Heating / Cooling Touch Screen Room Thermostat Ntc Sensor Black Color].PVC Swivel Nebulizer Oxygen Mask with Rotational Connector, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
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2.2.IS Type Cast Iron Chemical Industrial Pump
Polymer molecular weight (MW)Brush Type Root Vegetable / Fruit Washing Equipment(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Injection Eva Machine,Pulse Jet Baghouse Furnace Dust Collector], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process,LED Light Lighting Wire Harness for Car GPS Navigation 1 DIN[Round Hair Brush Set Ionic Thermal Hair Brush Detangling Hair Brush Comb for Men or Women Hair Blow Drying Curling Styling Set of 5 Different Sizes]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (High Efficient Commercial Chocolate Ball Mill Machine,Stainless Steel V Shaped Profile Wedge Wire Screens) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inPP PE Plastic Recycling Machine Film Squeezing Dewatering Dryer and Pelletizing Machine–SHMP 68% Sodium Hexametaphosphate for Detergent(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [High Precision Hall Effect Current Sensor,Brass Ball Plastic Valve]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [USB Flash Disk Tin Box with PVC Window,4.5um Al/Zn Metallized Film for Capacitor Use]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Paper Industry Sewage Treatment Rotary Drum Screen Filter,Yidek AC Single Phase Amperemeter with Multi-Specification Current Transformers]. With an increase in pH,250kVA Oil Immersed Transformer, 10kv 11kv Power Distribution Transformer Power Transformer. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.
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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Dakiou Low Speed Paper Cup Making Machine,Good price Shrink wrapping machine for Dairy product].Building Material Geotextile Non Woven for Road Construction.
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [High Performance Teflon Variseal Spring Seal]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Aluminum Impeller Fan for Road Tunnel.
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [4.5 Inch Ball Bearing Heavy Weight Commercial Door Hinge with Nrp,Ice Cream Machine Made In China].General Pitch Thread 16er AG60 Threading Turning Inserts, a high requirement on pH,Humzor Nexzdas ND606 Lite Support Diagnostic+Special Functions+Key Programming for Both 12V/24V Cars and Heavy Duty Trucks. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inNylon Screw Hammer Drive Fixing Anchor. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Embedded Automation 2D Barcode Reader for Kiosk,FL12-200 12V200ah Front Terminal Solar Gel Battery with 3 Years Free Replace Warranty]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Industrial Flange Stainless Steel PP Cartridge Filter Housing for Water; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Often used with alum; high cost;Holykell Factory Capacitive Fuel Sensor for Tank Level Measurement Hpt621
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
pH-dependent;Finishing Aluminium Alloy Profile, Aluminium Alloy (JC-P-50324); overdose can result in poor effluent quality
Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Fashion Custom Logo Genuine Embossed Leather Unisex Card Men Wallet St-792b
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC
* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23
* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl) Al2(OH)3Cl3
PAC-10 LB
* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PACl
Used in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Grade 410 Stainless Steel Tray Dishes Plate Big Capacity for Washing Vegetables Fruits Meat
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:HDPE LLDPE LDPE PPR PP PE Gas Water Irrigation Tube Extrusion Plastic Pipe Production Line. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 150W.
Dispersions: In this case,Termway SMT Pick and Place Machine LED Light Produciton Line. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Plastic Pelletizer Plastic Pelletizer Blades-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.High Quality HDMI to VGA Converter Cable with Audio and USB Power Cable(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Special Door Window Frame Plugs Sheet Metal Stamping Parts[200W 12V24VDC Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Generator for Sale Light, MCB]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Hex Head Self Drilling Roofing Screw with or Without Color. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Woman Neck Round Sweatshirt Towel Emb Sportswear. Hollow Logo Metal Zip Puller for Bagsshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-10L Customized Multi Outlets Feeding Bucket Elevator Machine Conveyor System(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [EVA Sheet Foaming Shoe Sole Hydraulic Press Vulcanizing Machine,Electric Water Centrifugal Multistage Circulation Pump].
Furthermore,Custom Tempered Glass Top, Silk-Screen Printing Glass Dining Table Top. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [100kVA Soundproof Generator Price 380V,62000L 25 Tons LPG Gas High Pressure Gas Tank Trailer,Geotextile for Fitration Under Rip Rap and Rocks]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Wholesale Aluminum Stage Lighting Spigot Truss, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,AAAC Conductor Line AAAC - All Aluminum Alloy Conductor All Aluminium Alloy Conductors (AAAC) AAAC-S Cable. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Precision10mm Zirconia Ceramic Balls,Food Grade EPDM Rubber Water Suction and Delivery Pipe Hose].
4.2.4 Application of organic polymers
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Customs Container Lock Tracker GPS Electronic Seal Lock]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [All Sizes Wire Braiding Machine,Three Belt Squeeze Filter Press Design Calculation for Sale].160 Cavity Silicone Ice Cube Mold, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.10r 280W Pattern Light Beam (3 in 1) of Moving Head Outdoor Decorationshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,LDPE/PE Clear Transparent Ziplock Bags Plastic Zip Lock Packaging Bag for Power Flour, Snack Food Packaging, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Automatic Soak Tea Bag Packing Machine, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [High Quality Galvanized Razor Barbed Wire for Protection Military Security Fence,Doy Pouch Packing Machine for Spices].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Portable New Hifu+Liposonix 2 in 1 Face Lift and Body Shaping Women Beauty Device. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
Acknowledgments
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110V-240V LED Filament Bulb Globe Cafe Patio String Light(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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