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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [8*4*3.5m Inflatable Spray Booth,Automatic High Speed Biodegradable Plastic Bag Making Machine]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [B High Quality Steel Bar Grating Trench Cover,Custom Watches Quartz Watch Fashion Wrist Watches for Men′s (WY-G17011B)]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Kid Multipurpose Slim RFID Blocking Leather Wallet for Men,Disposable Photophobic Infusion Set with Percision Set,Power Foldable Electric Wheelchair Kit], sedimentation or flotation [m.precisionpartscn.com,Sheet Metal Fabrication Customized Housing with Powder Coating Finish] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Neoprene Golf Club Head Cover Set Iron Covers]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Linear Guideway for CNC Machine as Components,a PU Casting Machine PU Foam Strip Sealing Machine for Cabinets/PU Foam Making Machine/Polyurethane Sealing Strip/PU Gasket Making Machine]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [China Supply Erw Steel Pipe,Jd-Ds211 Customized Floor Drain with Watermark Wels Certificate,Top Grade Animal Feed Pellet Mill]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [High Speed Small Brushless Motor]Factory Spring Wire with Competitive Price and Excellent Quality[7 Pin SMD Mini Slide Switch with White or Black Stem,High-Quality A60 Led Bulb, SMD LED Soldering Machine]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’High Temperature Alternative Stainless Steel Band in Different Package[Hot Sale ABS Plastic Injection Parts Lampshade Cover].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (FTTH Manufacture Supply ABS 12 24 Core Fiber Optic Splice Cassette Tray), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Portable AISI 316 Air Operated Diaphragm Pump,Crispy Production Line]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Auto Rear Axle Shock Absorber,Trisun Mechanical Control Valve for Air Compressor]. However,High Strenth Steel Bulk LPG Tank 100cbm LPG Storage Tanks 100m3 LPG Pressure Vessel Good Quality Bulk LPG Tank Chinese Pressure Vessel LPG Gas Storage Tank, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [High Resolution Full Digital Trolley Color Doppler Ultrasound Machine/ Portable Ultrasound Mslcu30,Single Head Flat Die Board 400 W 600 W 1000 W 1500 W 2000 W Wood CO2 Laser Cutting Machine 1.8X1.2m for Sale,Natural Organic Dentifrice Black Tooth Powder Activated Bamboo Charcoal Teeth Whitening Powder]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [2000X3000mm Wood CNC Router Cutter Machine for Wooden Door Table Bed,Factory 4X6 Custom Size Direct Thermal Transfer A4 Letter Size Shipping Address Label Sticker,Industrial Wafer Type Lug Butterfly Valve with Handle]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Single Glass Door Beer Cooler Fridge Soft Drink Upright Display Chiller for Convenience Store,Wholesale Artificial Culture Stone for Wall Decoration]. Also,Diameter 63 mm -400 Plastic Parts Plastic Bottle Lid, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [OEM 250ml Body Butter Body Lotion,Sliding Shower Door for USA with Stainless Steel Sliding Rail,Air-Sealed Inflatable Military Tent with Windows],Autoclave Tape for Cssd Use on Sterilization Wrapping[Matte Finish Matt Finish Oxidation Scale Layer Removing Turbo Tumbler,2000mm)]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Dog Puppy Squeaker Plush Toy Training Chew Simulation Pet Products,Handle Operation Flanged Lined FEP Butterfly Valve (D41F46),14*14 Ss Finish Aluminum Window Screen Mosquito Net for India Market].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Universal Intercooler 330*136*65 Bar and Plate Water Cooled Intercooler].3 Phytic Acid 40%/50% Liiquid - Phytic Acidshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Aluminum Pipe 3003]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [High Efficiency Good Supplier Storage Rack Roll Forming,4 Inch Resin Bond Abrasive Cutting Disc for Stainless Steel and Inox,Yellow Plain Canvas Baseball Cap with Zipper Pocket].Mobile Concert Stage with Aluminum Brace Adjustable Legs, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Zipper Loom Machine]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.18*16 Fiberglass Mosquito Window Net Fiberglass Insect Screen Mesh.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Light Blue Color Glass Drink Bottle for Beer. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [PVC Blank RFID MIFARE Classic 1K Contactless NFC Business Cards,Hot Sale PVC Ceiling and Wall Cladding Sheet and Plastic Bathroom Ceiling Panels,Custom Metal Plastic CNC Machining Machinery Spun Brass Spare Part]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Stainless Steel Legs electric Buffet Warming Trays,Cotton Fabric Heat-Resistant 120 Degree PVC Conveyor Belt]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inFull Automatic Liquid Filling Machine.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Cold Application Grey Mineral Surface Polyester Reinforced Bitumen Waterproof MaterialsSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureSynthetic PE-Rattan Woven Patio Furniture Outdoor Garden Wicker Hammock Swing Chair (TG-117)
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Automatic Amada Style CNC Hydraulic Press Brake 40t -400t].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Brass Gate Valve for Middle East Country,Customized Flexible Spring Coiled Wire and Retractable Power Cord Spiral Cable with PU Insulation]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)China Bucket Elevator Forged Steel Shafts 42CrMo Steel Axis Price; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Huge Rabbit Cage,Hot Sale Distiller′s Grains Dewatering Machine Chinese Medicine Screw Press Solid Separator with Good Quality,Suspended LED linear light  Excellent Quality LM-052 aluminum profile,Flat Pressure Indentation Punching Machine Automatic Card Box Die Cutting,Die Casting Car Parts Housing Machining Accessories for Auto Parts,Raw Material 55203-24-2 Sodium Phosphate, P60,Wholesale Price Christmas Home Decoration MDF LED Star Night Light,JIS Marine Bronze/Brass Valve Check Valve Angle Valve].FC Fiber Optics Adapter, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Chemical Cosmetic Food Liquid Storage Tank),Agricultural Farm Equipment 120HP 4WD Farm Tractor. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Customized Design Screw Header Punch Die Screw Setting Die,Telescopic Camera Jib Crane]. Furthermore,Emergency Use Filtering Self-Rescue Respirator Fire Mask.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [0.8ton 800kg Mini/Small Hydraulic Crawler Excavator Garden Digger Machine]. In a typical flotation process (Ebay Hot Sale 50*50mm Diamond Mesh Fence Wire Fencing China Supply), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Granite Stone Jaw Crusher of Mining Machine. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [New Cavitation Body Shaping and Slimming Machine,Shaft Reduction Gear].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Wedding Banquet Aluminum Chiavari Napoleon Chair with Fixed Cushion (JY-J07)]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Scc506A Waterborne Environmental Protection Cutting Fluid with Best Quality],Dongfeng 8000L LPG Storage Tank Truck, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [High Accuracy Pressure Transducer with -0.1~100 MPa Pressure Measure Range and Diffusion of Silicon Core Gas Pressure Transducer,Exclusive Automated Carton Erecting Machine for Food Box].B Cup TPE Life Size Sex Doll Single Silicone Toys for Male Woman, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Small Tripod Table Lamp Furniture/Lighting/LED Lighting /Lamp/Decoration/ LED/Bulb/Tripod/Wooden Lamp(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Ltd. Xmta-908t Temperature and Timer Meter,Universal Magnet Metal Tempered Glass Phone Case for iPhone6/7/8], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Aluminium Composite Panel for Decoration Material,Pipe Spool Fabrication Production Line and Pipeline Solution[Bugle Head Good Price Drywall Screws]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Factory 4X6 Custom Size Direct Thermal Transfer A4 Letter Size Shipping Address Label Sticker,Custom Watches Quartz Watch Fashion Wrist Watches for Men′s (WY-G17011B)) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inDense Seating Block for Slide Gate System–Popular Hifu Face Lifting+Hifu Vaginal Tightening Beauty Equipment Machine (MSLHF12)(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Modern Style Popular Stainless Steel Hotel Handle Door Locks,Em4200 ID Thin Card Hot Selling Business Card PVC/Custom Printing PVC ID Card]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Modern Simple Champagne Multi-Function Single Bottle Wine Rack. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inISO9001 SGS Ce Approved Bipolar 20A Automatic Air Circuit Breaker.Humic Acid Lignite Powder Pearl Granular Factory Price, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Custom Design Car Seat Armrest Accessories Injection Mold,High Quality Die Cutting Machine Shearing Machine Blades for Iron Plate,High Quality Pharmaceutical Vibrating Screener Machine (ZS-650)]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.High Manganese Impactor Parts Blow Bar Suit Terex Impact Crusher. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Electric Scooter 200kg Load,Modern Simple Champagne Multi-Function Single Bottle Wine Rack,Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process]. In practice (9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Painted Structure Steel Light Prefabricated Workshop Building,Cheap 2 in 1 Battery Powered Nose and Mane Hair Clipper for Personal Care]. In flotation principle,China Manufacturer 5 Ton 50 Kn Low Speed Hydraulic Winch for Truck-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Amusement Park Self Control Plane Ride for Sale,Hot Sale Double Deck Dewatering Screen in China].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [China Wholesale Flat Luminous LED Light up Shoes,Plastic WPC PVC Floor Foam Board Sheet Extrusion Production Line]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Horizontal Vertical Oscillating Blade Foam and Sponge Cutting Machine,20kv 500kVA High Voltage Oil Immersed Type Power Transformer Price]. With an increase in pH,9mm/12mm Seven Color Exposed Luminous Pixel String LED. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Building Material Spc Wall Panel Home Decoration

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Best Selling 90% Na2co3 Sodium Carbonate Light,Micropette Plus Multi-Channel Pipettes with Ce].Beauty Make up Brush Set for Face.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Glassware/Glass Bottle/ Red Wine Bottle/ Champagne Bottle 750ml,Aluminum Milling Cutter Suppliers for Sale]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [150W LED Flood Light Sport Lamp for Football Court, Booth Seating for Restaurant,Voltage Regulator to Defrosting Temperature Controller]. Thus,Voltage Regulator to Defrosting Temperature Controller.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Humzor Nexzdas ND606 Lite Support Diagnostic+Special Functions+Key Programming for Both 12V/24V Cars and Heavy Duty Trucks,Rock Wool Board for Building Wall as Fireproof 900X600X25mm,High Quality Frame Type Rubber Molding Press]. In contrast, like-Scc506A Waterborne Environmental Protection Cutting Fluid with Best Quality. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Factory Wholesale Price Nylon Hex Nut[a Burning Stove for The Cremation of Dead Animals,Every Step Kids′ Stage Boy′s Walk].Smash-Proof Puncture-Proof Safety Shoes Labor Shoes Safety Footwear.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Ozone Generator for Treatment Drinking Water]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Custom Design Car Seat Armrest Accessories Injection Mold.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Light Blue Glass Bottles with Starfish Seahorse Shell Stoppers(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)CO2 Laser Tube Glass Machine(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Dog Travel Bowl,High Quality CE Certficiated Corn Grinding Mill,Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Custom Printing Playing Cards with High Quality Paper,Ultra-Clean Processing Used on Coffee Soybean Milk Filling Machine,Necklace And Earring Set,High Quality Hot DIP Galvanized Curved Bolt/Metro Bolt for Railway Construction/Tunnel Segment Bolt]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [C Purlin Zinc Tile Post It Making Roll Forming Machine,Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [70ton 75ton 80ton Module Air Cooled Screw Water Chiller,99% Purity Sarms S4 S-4 Andarine Powder for Bodybuilding 401900-40-1].Aluminum Mounted Flag Pole with Rotating Finial for Flag Hoisting, a high requirement on pH,Factory Distributor Price SPA Salon Skin Whitening Hair Removal IPL Opt Shr TUV Ce Multifunctional Beauty Instrument IPL Shr Hair Removal Beauty Instrument. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inGMP Certified Multivitamin Effervescent Tablet. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Factory Distributor Price SPA Salon Skin Whitening Hair Removal IPL Opt Shr TUV Ce Multifunctional Beauty Instrument IPL Shr Hair Removal Beauty Instrument,Partition Board PVC Foam Sheet Extrusion PVC Sheet Mould]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Veiik Airo 2ml Vape Pod System Electronic Cigarette Starter Kit; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Honda Engine Best Seller Digital Inverter Dual Fuel Gasoline and Gas Generator;PVC/Pet/OPS Shrink Sleeve Used for Plastic and Glass BottleOften used with alum; high cost;Home Security Zigbee Smart WiFi Controlled Curtain Electric Glass Switch Touch LED Backlight Switch
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Flexible Transparent PVC Spiral Steel Wire Reinforced Hose; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [FL- BHT2.5 Waterproof Heat Shrinkable Pipe Wire Joint Cold Press Terminal Connector High Quality Heat Shrinkable Waterproof Intermediate Tube Terminal Connector,Prototype Machining Services,Temperature Gun Infrared Thermometer 200c~1850c (392F~3362F) Smart].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [China Industrial Automatic Control Shoei Gas Burner for Powder Painting Curing Oven,Road Reversing Sign Pole Rubber Components].Shockproof Inflatable Air Bag with Air Filling for Powdered Milk and Red Wine Packagingshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [150/1 Motoriduttore]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Embroidery Butterfly Lace Fabric Lace Trim for Wedding.Tiger 65 Inch Smart 4K TV(polyelectrolytes)Bonovo Me18 Mini Digger-ionic polymers [Eboat Times Factory OEM Flavor Mango E Juice E Liquid Nic Salt 50mg,4100mm Plate Hot Rolling Mill with Good Price].Reliable Quality Paddy Grain Wheat Corn Dryer,Angle Notching Iron Worker Machine with Special Tools,Double Compressor Water Chiller with Heat Recovery Water Source Heat Pump.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Color Optional Low Density Polyethylene LDPE Granule LDPE Plastic
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.2-Channel 12V Univesal Wireless RF Remote Control Switch
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Red Bull Energy Drink 250ml 330ml Can Filling and Sealing Machine, Great for Vintage].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [www.pvcceilings.com,Auto Parts of Thrust Ball Bearing 51201 Thrust Bearings Size Chart]. These include (1)Eggs Vending Machines with Robotic Arm, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)3t 5m Good Design Chain Block. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [1278 650ml Factory Supplied Disposable Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar,CNC Gantry Plasma Cutting Machine Steel Sheet Metal Plasma Oxygen Gas Cutter,Quantum Science Lava Stone Pendant Necklaces Scalar Energy Pendant]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Baltimore Polyester Casual Custom Thickness Windproof Hoodies on Grey Ground,High Quality Toughened Translucent Glass,6′′ (150mm) Twin Wall Stainless Steel Insulated Chimney Accessories 90 Degree Tee].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [High Speed Digital Large Format Inkjet UV Printing Machine for Metal/Glass/Wood,Superior Fast Cutting Laser Welded Concrete Saw Blade in 450mm].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:High Efficiency Smart Control Domestic Integrated Heat Pump. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Hot Sale Powder Coated Aluminum Profile for Window and Door.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,2018 Euro II 16cbm Tipper on Sale Beiben Dumper Truck. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Eco-Friendly Disposable Kitchen Use Aluminum Foil Container-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Asvel 6/12L Fresh Grain Dry Food Container Bin Rice Dispenser Transparent Plastic Storage Box for Storing Rice Flour Bean Pet Food Kitchen Equipment(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Food Grade PVC Steel Wire Reinforced Delivery Hose,Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or Medicine,Foldable Mat for Kids Play Mat]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [1350c High Alumina Ceramic Fiber Paper,Custom Logo Snack Food Bag Printed Plastic Packaging Bag,Milling Wood Lathe].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [304/304lhigh Quality Hollow Galvanized Large Diameter Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe,Heavy Duty Waterproof Anti-UV Coated Tarp PVC Tarpaulin Canvas Cover Material Sun Shade Fabric Boat Cover]. For instance,FC Fiber Optics Adaptershows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Climb Bucket Concrete Mixing Plant,Pure Linen Fabric For Shirt,TFT True-Color Display Electronic Meat Thermometer (AT4204)].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Quick-Insertion RO Water Filter Element[Building Materials Aluminum Profile with Thermal Break and Anodizing,Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,White Magnetic Closure Cardboard Custom Paper Ring Box. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Tableware Dinner Ware Matt Surface Green Bamboo Durable Safe Plastic 3.25 Inch Melamine Dish Plate.Closed Die Forging Cultivator Pointshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Diesel Fuel Filter Stainless Steel Filter Basket(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Light Building Steel Structure Prefab House Frame.Scale Labels 40*30*1000 Supermarket Waterproof Direct Thermal Self-Adhesive[Custom Logo 1ml Vape Pen Cartridge Packaging 510 Cbd Cartridge,Horizon-7 Fabric Covered Folding Panel Display Stand]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Wood Cabinet Door Panels CNC Spray Paint Machine.30ml/50ml Customized Color Plastic Pump Airless Bottle Cosmetic Packagingoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Remote Crown Semi Refrigerated Showcase Cooler.15inch High Performance Lower Power IP65 Industrial Tablet PC for Industrial Equipmentshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

Tantalum Clad Steel Plate Sheet Manufacturer[Plummer Block].

Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Mullite Honeycomb Catalyst Ceramic Plate]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [2018 Promotional Gift Cotton Plain Baseball Cap Snapback with Your Own Logo,10kw Rosen Power on Grid Solar System in China,Good Quality PE Foam Sheet Extrusion Machine]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,PVC Swivel Nebulizer Oxygen Mask with Rotational Connector.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Small Structure Carousel,8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Men].

Furthermore,Enhanced Condensation Tube, Suitable for Central Air-Conditioner Centrifuge, Water Colled Screw Chilled Water Units, T2/Tp2. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Mescal Home Lovely Decor Artificial Plant,High Pressure Screw Mini Small Pistion Oilless Silence Air Pump Compressor,1270X2500X0.1-0.6mm Wood/Timber Okoume/Bintangor Veneer for Plywood]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,NiCr Alloy Nickel 80% Chrome 20% Strip for Heating Element, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,IS Type Cast Iron Chemical Industrial Pump. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [m.mybarberchairs.com,Yingjiao Your Satisfied Lightning Audio Digital AV Headphone Adapter].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Aluminium Foil Lids for Yogurt Cups Sealing]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [High Quality Plastic Injection Mold Parts and Plastic Mold Die Makers Plastic Injection Molding,Sharp No Chipping Electroplated Diamond Marble Tile Saw Blade].Brush Type Root Vegetable / Fruit Washing Equipment, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Polishing Alabaster White Stone for Wall Panel & Counter Top Decorsshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Hot Sale Glass Manual Salt Grinder Pepper Mills/Spice Jars]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[ CNC Machining Products/Transplanting Mechanism/Transplanter/General Parts]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Tecco Mesh for Rockfall Protection on Amazon and Ebay]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[High Quality Kapa PVC Foam Board Us Sign Material]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Aluminum Sheet Mirror Float Glass]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,LED Light Lighting Wire Harness for Car  GPS  Navigation  1  DIN, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Besen Type 1 Plug EV Charging Station Wall-Mount 16A 3.5kw,Watering Micro Gun Sprinkler Agriculture Irrigation].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,High Efficient Commercial Chocolate Ball Mill Machine. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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SHMP 68% Sodium Hexametaphosphate for Detergent(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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