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Flat Glass Flask Bottle Cold Juice Drinking Bottle-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

Full Automatic Liquid Filling Machine

Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

Enhanced Waist Brace Waist Belt Waist Support.Bright Color Prefab Steel Structure Building Used for Workshop,Shanghai Automatic Multihead Weigher All-in-One Packing Machine for Crispy Rice,Low Oil Absorption Paint Grade Rutile Titanium Dioxide. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Cbd Oil Cartridge Vape Pen Battery Mod 350mAh Preheating Box Mod Vaporizer Bud Touch Vape Pen Key Box Mod Battery Kit E Cigarette. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,Microfiber Cooling Towel for Sports. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [05560-1: 5 Scale Gasoline off Road Buggy 32cc Snowfields Edition 4WD RTR 2.4G,Multifunction Wooden Dresser Case for Storage Cosmetic Jewelry]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Home Fragrance Decoration 150ml Perfume Hotel Air Freshener Aroma Reed Essential Oil Air Diffuser,Mc-275A Pipe/Tube Cutting Machine]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Puyi Rubber Tracks for Asv PT 50 380*102*42,PLA 1.75mm 3.0mm Filament Single Screw Extruder,Fengdeng New Style Cosmetic Bags Office Stationery Canvas Pencil Case], sedimentation or flotation [Smoke Detector With Dual Leds, Caustic Soda Flake with 99% Min. Purity] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [2018 New Design Red-CNC-071 CNC Machining Aluminum Parts]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Medical Supply for Laparoscopic Instrument (MIM Straight Scissors),Popular Land Push Harrow Painted 22 Tines Rake Heads Small Hay Rake for Garden Rake]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Sticky Laminate Sheets,Disposable Infusion Set I. V. Set with Butterfly Needle,Hot Dipped Galvanized Concetrtina Razor Barbed Wire]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [8*4*3.5m Inflatable Spray Booth]Stainless Steel Wok with Soft Touch Handle[Automatic High Speed Biodegradable Plastic Bag Making Machine,Factory Price NBR FKM PU Black Rubber Drum-Type Seal Ring,Custom Watches Quartz Watch Fashion Wrist Watches for Men′s (WY-G17011B)]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Foska Good Quality Office and Student Plastic Stapler[Kid Multipurpose Slim RFID Blocking Leather Wallet for Men].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Disposable Photophobic Infusion Set with Percision Set), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Power Foldable Electric Wheelchair Kit,Luffing Jib Tower Crane]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Sheet Metal Fabrication Customized Housing with Powder Coating Finish,Neoprene Golf Club Head Cover Set Iron Covers]. However,Refractory Glass Wool Thermal Insulation Fibre Glass Wool, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Linear Guideway for CNC Machine as Components,a PU Casting Machine PU Foam Strip Sealing Machine for Cabinets/PU Foam Making Machine/Polyurethane Sealing Strip/PU Gasket Making Machine,Suit Interlining]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Jd-Ds211 Customized Floor Drain with Watermark Wels Certificate,Top Grade Animal Feed Pellet Mill,High Speed Small Brushless Motor]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [7 Pin SMD Mini Slide Switch with White or Black Stem,Automatical Industrial Mechanical Water Filter with Epoxy Coated Steel]. Also,Decorative Insulated Glass, Color/ Clear Window Glass for Purcurement, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [ SMD LED Soldering Machine,Hot Sale ABS Plastic Injection Parts Lampshade Cover,FTTH Manufacture Supply ABS 12 24 Core Fiber Optic Splice Cassette Tray],Promotion Cheap Flexible 3D Lenticular Ruler/Lenticular 3D Ruler[Portable AISI 316 Air Operated Diaphragm Pump,3-Wire]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Auto Rear Axle Shock Absorber,Trisun Mechanical Control Valve for Air Compressor,High Resolution Full Digital Trolley Color Doppler Ultrasound Machine/ Portable Ultrasound Mslcu30].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Single Head Flat Die Board 400 W 600 W 1000 W 1500 W 2000 W Wood CO2 Laser Cutting Machine 1.8X1.2m for Sale].Cattle Slaughtering Equipment- Bleedingshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [2000X3000mm Wood CNC Router Cutter Machine for Wooden Door Table Bed]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Factory 4X6 Custom Size Direct Thermal Transfer A4 Letter Size Shipping Address Label Sticker,Industrial Wafer Type Lug Butterfly Valve with Handle,Single Glass Door Beer Cooler Fridge Soft Drink Upright Display Chiller for Convenience Store].New Products Carbon Steel Stainless Steel Flange Serrated Bolts, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Concrete Admixture Sodium Naphthalene Sulfonate Formaldehyde]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Max. 3380 Lm/M Emergency Exit Path Lighting LED Light Belt.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,PVC/PP/PE Twin Screw Plastic Granules Extruding Granulator Machine. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [OEM 250ml Body Butter Body Lotion,Sliding Shower Door for USA with Stainless Steel Sliding Rail,Air-Sealed Inflatable Military Tent with Windows]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Matte Finish Matt Finish Oxidation Scale Layer Removing Turbo Tumbler,Stainless Steel 304hc Hammer High Strength Brass Carriage Garden Furniture Bolts]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inDog Puppy Squeaker Plush Toy Training Chew Simulation Pet Products.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
220VAC 10g Plate Type Ozone Generator with FanSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureHigh Temperature Smoke Extractor Fans
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Handle Operation Flanged Lined FEP Butterfly Valve (D41F46)].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [14*14 Ss Finish Aluminum Window Screen Mosquito Net for India Market,Universal Intercooler 330*136*65 Bar and Plate Water Cooled Intercooler]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Cheap Wholesale Custom Brand Logo Printing Kraft Bag Packaging Gift Paper Bags with Your Own Logo; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Dc Motor For Model Aircraft,Aluminum Pipe 3003,High Efficiency Good Supplier Storage Rack Roll Forming,4 Inch Resin Bond Abrasive Cutting Disc for Stainless Steel and Inox,Yellow Plain Canvas Baseball Cap with Zipper Pocket,Wholesale Cheap Printed BOPP/CPP Laminating Metallized Food Packaging Plastic Roll Film,PVC Blank RFID MIFARE Classic 1K Contactless NFC Business Cards,Hot Sale PVC Ceiling and Wall Cladding Sheet and Plastic Bathroom Ceiling Panels,Custom Metal Plastic CNC Machining Machinery Spun Brass Spare Part].Custom Metal Plastic CNC Machining Machinery Spun Brass Spare Part, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Stainless Steel Legs electric Buffet Warming Trays),4 Seater Pessenger Golf Cart Dg-C4 with Ce Certificate (China). These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Flood Protection Automatic Flood Gate,Full Automatic Liquid Filling Machine]. Furthermore,Mars Solar Complete 1kw 3kw 5kw 10kw 15kw 20kw 25kw 30kw Home Use Solar Power System off Grid Tie Inverter for Home.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Automatic Amada Style CNC Hydraulic Press Brake 40t -400t]. In a typical flotation process (Brass Gate Valve for Middle East Country), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Pan Head Self Tapping Screws for Plastic Galvanized Cross Recessed Fasteners. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Customized Flexible Spring Coiled Wire and Retractable Power Cord Spiral Cable with PU Insulation,Anhydrous Aluminum Sulfate].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Hot Sale Distiller′s Grains Dewatering Machine Chinese Medicine Screw Press Solid Separator with Good Quality]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Suspended LED linear light  Excellent Quality LM-052 aluminum profile],China Manufacturer Price for Sodium Hydroxide, Caustic Soda Flake with 99% Min. Purity, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Flat Pressure Indentation Punching Machine Automatic Card Box Die Cutting,Die Casting Car Parts Housing Machining Accessories for Auto Parts].4 Layer Hard Gold Plating PCB Circuit Board, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Lenton Type Bar Lock Couplers with Bolt(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Double-row Angular Contact Ball Bearings, P60], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Planer / Large Vertical Rotary Cutting Machine Wood Skin Face Veneer Rotary Cutter/ Whirling Machine Veneer Peeling Lathe,Refrigerated Salad Counter Chiller with Stainless Steel Table[Wholesale Price Christmas Home Decoration MDF LED Star Night Light]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Best Quality Changlin 0.3m3 Backhoe Loader Wz30-25 for Sale,Neoprene Golf Club Head Cover Set Iron Covers) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inJIS Marine Bronze/Brass Valve Check Valve Angle Valve–Sanitary Stainless Steel Pneumatic Weld Butterfly Valve(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Chemical Cosmetic Food Liquid Storage Tank,Flexible Strip 2835 LED Rope Lighting 24V 12W/M 2years Warranty]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

50AA-H Crydom SSR Cmx60d20 PCB SSR DC Relay. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inTelescopic Camera Jib Crane.6D Galvanic Facial Machine Eye Lifting Skin Care Beauty Equipment, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [0.8ton 800kg Mini/Small Hydraulic Crawler Excavator Garden Digger Machine,Ebay Hot Sale 50*50mm Diamond Mesh Fence Wire Fencing China Supply,New Cavitation Body Shaping and Slimming Machine]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature Rise. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Small Steel Silo for Sale/Steel Hopper,Wedding Banquet Aluminum Chiavari Napoleon Chair with Fixed Cushion (JY-J07),Scc506A Waterborne Environmental Protection Cutting Fluid with Best Quality]. In practice (High Accuracy Pressure Transducer with -0.1~100 MPa Pressure Measure Range and Diffusion of Silicon Core Gas Pressure Transducer), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Exclusive Automated Carton Erecting Machine for Food Box,Aluminum Alloy Cnc Machining]. In flotation principle,Lug Type Cast Steel Butterfly Valve Dn125 with Gearbox-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Universal Magnet Metal Tempered Glass Phone Case for iPhone6/7/8,Bugle Head Good Price Drywall Screws].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Dense Seating Block for Slide Gate System,Modern Style Popular Stainless Steel Hotel Handle Door Locks]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Customized Stainless Steel/Carbon Steel/Steel Lost Wax Casting/Investment Casting/Precision Casting Bracket/Valve Body/Connector/Steel Casting Part with OEM,ISO9001 SGS Ce Approved Bipolar 20A Automatic Air Circuit Breaker]. With an increase in pH,Twin Wall Insulated Stainless Steel Juice Tumbler Vacuum Water Tumbler Metal Straw Cup Inox Straw Tumbler. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Custom Design Car Seat Armrest Accessories Injection Mold,High Quality Die Cutting Machine Shearing Machine Blades for Iron Plate].Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [High Quality Pharmaceutical Vibrating Screener Machine (ZS-650),Black Mirror Finished Stainless Steel Plate 304]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Modern Simple Champagne Multi-Function Single Bottle Wine Rack,Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process,9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine]. Thus,Lgd-4033 /Ligandrol 1165910-22-4 Sarms Powders.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Painted Structure Steel Light Prefabricated Workshop Building,Branch Mulching Machine,Amusement Park Self Control Plane Ride for Sale]. In contrast, like-HDG Cable Tray Exporting to USA. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Leisure Metal Frame Garden Patio Furniture Set Outdoor Hotel Aluminium PE Rattan Weaving Furniture Set[Hot Sale Double Deck Dewatering Screen in China,China Wholesale Flat Luminous LED Light up Shoes].Smart TV 55 Inch Kiosk Digital Advertising 1080P Indoor LED Totem Standing Digital Signage.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Plastic WPC PVC Floor Foam Board Sheet Extrusion Production Line]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,OEM/ODM Factory 600cwp Lead Free Brass Ball Valve with Drain C Xc.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Electric Heating & Steam Heating Stainless Steel Reactor(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Cold Drawn D2 H13 Alloy Steel Turning Roll(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [m.nq-chem.com,20kv 500kVA High Voltage Oil Immersed Type Power Transformer Price,Best Selling 90% Na2co3 Sodium Carbonate Light]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Micropette Plus Multi-Channel Pipettes with Ce,Glassware/Glass Bottle/ Red Wine Bottle/ Champagne Bottle 750ml,Motorized Curtain,150W LED Flood Light Sport Lamp for Football Court]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [ Booth Seating for Restaurant,Voltage Regulator to Defrosting Temperature Controller].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Humzor Nexzdas ND606 Lite Support Diagnostic+Special Functions+Key Programming for Both 12V/24V Cars and Heavy Duty Trucks,3D XPE PE Foam Brick Designs Wallpaper From Factory].Outdoor Armoured 6 Core GYTA53 Direct Buried Fiber Optic Cable, a high requirement on pH,3inch, P60, Ts Type Vsm Zirconia & Ceramic Roloc Disc. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inHigh Quality Frame Type Rubber Molding Press. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [a Burning Stove for The Cremation of Dead Animals,Every Step Kids′ Stage Boy′s Walk]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Formwork Scoffolding Wing Nut 100mm; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Factory Price Fungicide Tebuconazole 96%Tc CAS 107534-96-3;Ice Cream Cup Paper Cone Sleeve Making MachineOften used with alum; high cost;BSMI Test and Certification for LED Lamps
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Kinds of Colors Agate Pear Pendant Agate Necklace; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Ozone Generator for Treatment Drinking Water,Coil Steel,High Quality CE Certficiated Corn Grinding Mill].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device,Custom Printing Playing Cards with High Quality Paper].Ultra-Clean Processing Used on Coffee Soybean Milk Filling Machineshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Plexiglass Noise Barrier UV Protected Acrylic Glass Sheet]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Panda WiFi IP Camera, HD Baby Monitor for Baby, Pet, Old People.Abnm-Uvss08 Fixed Water-Proof Under Vehicle Security Inspection System(polyelectrolytes)2.8 Meters Single Roller Steam Industrial Ironing Machine/Linen Ironer Machine (YPA)-ionic polymers [High Quality Hot DIP Galvanized Curved Bolt/Metro Bolt for Railway Construction/Tunnel Segment Bolt,C Purlin Zinc Tile Post It Making Roll Forming Machine].Turnkey Service PCBA Assembly Immersion Gold SMD/SMT PCB Electronic GPS Tracker Board Clone,Excellent Fire Resistance Fiberglass Reinforced Asphalt Shingle for Residential Roofs,Metal Floor Decking Cold Roll Forming Machine.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.2019 Latest Designs 120GSM Luxury Quality Bed in a Bag Comforter Set
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Hot Sale Mobile Phone Shop Display Furniture Interior Design
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516,70ton 75ton 80ton Module Air Cooled Screw Water Chiller].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Rock Wool Fiber Board,GMP Certified Multivitamin Effervescent Tablet]. These include (1)T Series 90 Degree Helical Cone Bevel Agricultural Gearbox, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Breaker Seal Kit for Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Hammer Seal Kit Fine 23 Fine 36 Breaker Seal Kit. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Factory Distributor Price SPA Salon Skin Whitening Hair Removal IPL Opt Shr TUV Ce Multifunctional Beauty Instrument IPL Shr Hair Removal Beauty Instrument,Partition Board PVC Foam Sheet Extrusion PVC Sheet Mould,FL- BHT2.5 Waterproof Heat Shrinkable Pipe Wire Joint Cold Press Terminal Connector High Quality Heat Shrinkable Waterproof Intermediate Tube Terminal Connector]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Cutting Creasing Machine Factory OEM/ODM Products,Temperature Gun Infrared Thermometer 200c~1850c (392F~3362F) Smart,China Industrial Automatic Control Shoei Gas Burner for Powder Painting Curing Oven].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Road Reversing Sign Pole Rubber Components,Shockproof Inflatable Air Bag with Air Filling for Powdered Milk and Red Wine Packaging].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Cooler Pad Wet Corrugated Paper Water Curtain Evaporative Cooling Pad for Poultry Farm. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Nylon Weatherproof PA6 Strain Relief Cable Gland.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Bathroom Anti Fog Mirror/Rectangle LED Mirror. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Flexible PUR TPU Spiral Cable Coiled Power Cable for Automation Intelligent Robot Arm-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.100% Waterproof Spc Core Click Lock Rigid Vinyl Plank for Indoor(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Ball Nose End Mill,Eboat Times Factory OEM Flavor Mango E Juice E Liquid Nic Salt 50mg,4100mm Plate Hot Rolling Mill with Good Price]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Red Bull Energy Drink 250ml 330ml Can Filling and Sealing Machine, Great for Vintage,Fingolimod Hcl].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Auto Parts of Thrust Ball Bearing 51201 Thrust Bearings Size Chart,1278 650ml Factory Supplied Disposable Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar]. For instance,CNC Gantry Plasma Cutting Machine Steel Sheet Metal Plasma Oxygen Gas Cuttershows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Quantum Science Lava Stone Pendant Necklaces Scalar Energy Pendant,Brick Machine Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList,High Quality Toughened Translucent Glass].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,DC Brushless 24V 1nm 200rpm Electrical DC Motor for Industrial Fan[6′′ (150mm) Twin Wall Stainless Steel Insulated Chimney Accessories 90 Degree Tee,High Speed Digital Large Format Inkjet UV Printing Machine for Metal/Glass/Wood]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,PP Woven Bag, Rice, Beans, Plastic Bag. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Cashmere Blocked Pullover Women Sweater-Cashmere Sweater.Superior Fast Cutting Laser Welded Concrete Saw Blade in 450mmshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-0.7mm 0.5mm 1050 H14 H24 Aluminum Coil for Thermal Insulation Engineering(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Sheet Metal Processing Stainless Steel Galvanized Metal Parts Stamping Bending Production.HPMC 200000s Hydroxy Propyl Methyl Cellulose for Liquid Detergent or Soaps[Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or Medicine,Foldable Mat for Kids Play Mat]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.China Wholesale Battery Operated 3W LED Lemon Slice Fruit Pendant String Light.1350c High Alumina Ceramic Fiber Paperoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Lightweight M370-27speed Aluminum Alloy Mantis Mountain Bike 29er.Custom Logo Snack Food Bag Printed Plastic Packaging Bagshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [304/304lhigh Quality Hollow Galvanized Large Diameter Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Heavy Duty Waterproof Anti-UV Coated Tarp PVC Tarpaulin Canvas Cover Material Sun Shade Fabric Boat Cover,FC Fiber Optics Adapter,Climb Bucket Concrete Mixing Plant]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Portable Laser Engraver 20W.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Outdoor Furniture Garden High Quality Supplier,TFT True-Color Display Electronic Meat Thermometer (AT4204)].

Furthermore,High Quality Corrugated Carton Box Production Line. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Building Materials Aluminum Profile with Thermal Break and Anodizing,Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food,Closed Die Forging Cultivator Point]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Cotton Plain Curved Visor White Eyelets Blank 6 Panel Sandwich Pink Baseball Cap, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,WPC Wall Cladding Waterproof Exterior Wall Panels. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [China Supplier Oxygen Gas Cylinder 50l,Custom Logo 1ml Vape Pen Cartridge Packaging 510 Cbd Cartridge].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Horizon-7 Fabric Covered Folding Panel Display Stand]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [30ml/50ml Customized Color Plastic Pump Airless Bottle Cosmetic Packaging,15inch High Performance Lower Power IP65 Industrial Tablet PC for Industrial Equipment].Hot Sale Wooden Grain Melamine Paper for Laminated Flooring, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.fupitc.comshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Mullite Honeycomb Catalyst Ceramic Plate]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[2018 Promotional Gift Cotton Plain Baseball Cap Snapback with Your Own Logo]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[10kw Rosen Power on Grid Solar System in China]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Good Quality PE Foam Sheet Extrusion Machine]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[20kg Chemical Powder Packing Machine for Valve Bag]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Jinan Sunny Aluminum Double Head Cutting Saw for Aluminum (LJZ2-450X3700), and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Prepinted Steel Sheet for Building PPGL Tile, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Men,Mescal Home Lovely Decor Artificial Plant].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Vital Injector. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Good Manufacture for Fiber Laser Tube and Sheet Cutter(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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