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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

Ductile Iron Grooved Fire Fighting Fitting.Amazon Inserts Electric Fireplace with Gas Heaters Fan Modern Furniture,Ventilation Axial Fan for Cooling System,Hydraulic Electric Folding Bending Machine Sheet Metal. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Blank Sweatshirt Cotton Sweatshirts with Different Colors Nw305W. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,New Design Pig Farm Equipment for Sow Farrowing Bed Farrowing Crate. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Alarm System Infrared Photocell Sensor Yet610,Holykell Factory Capacitive Fuel Sensor for Tank Level Measurement Hpt621]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Api Steel Tube Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList,Commercial Circular Sock Knitting Machine]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Bathroom Anti Fog Mirror/Rectangle LED Mirror,Vital Injector,Spherical Neodymium Magnets Small Earth Magnets Neodymium Magne], sedimentation or flotation [Spraying Machine For Cabinet Door,Genuine Piston for Komastu Engine 6D102] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Farm Large Warehouse Dome Storage Building for Sale]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [High-Pressure Indoor Decorative Material PVC Laminated Wall Panel,Low Carbon 10 Inch Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe Schedule 40]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Hospital Bed Comfort Infrared Soft Mattress,Hot Sale Wooden Grain Melamine Paper for Laminated Flooring, Aluminium Alloy (JC-P-50324)]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Eco-Friendly Disposable Kitchen Use Aluminum Foil Container]2.5mm/ 4mm/6mm/10mm AC/DC Copper Wire Solar PV Photovoltaic Cable[Light Blue Glass Bottles with Starfish Seahorse Shell Stoppers,High Quality Metallic Sequins Lurex Lace Trim for Decoration,10g/Hr Ozone Air Purifier Ozone Generator for Home]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’High-Pressure Indoor Decorative Material PVC Laminated Wall Panel[3W 5W 10W Nonmetal UV Laser Engraving Marking].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Linear Module One Slide Linear Stage Ball Screw Block), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Elite 5′x10′ Fiber Laser Metal Sheet and Pipe Cutter with Exchange Table 1000-2000 W,Commercial Trunking Light System]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Hot Sale Powder Coated Aluminum Profile for Window and Door,China Manufacturer Cheap Price Spc Vinyl Flooring]. However,1ml 2ml Feelderma Dermal Filler Syringe Face Beauty Dermal Filler Facial Sodium Hyaluronate Gel Dermal Filler Inject, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [D902 Cylinder Head for Kubota Tractor Diesel Engine Parts,Dn50 Stainless Steel Flanged Check Valve,Tilmicosin Phosphate With Best Price]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [2.0mm Thickness Reinforced PVC Waterproofing Membrane for Plant Roof,24 Volt Hydraulic Power Pack Small Hydraulic Power Unit Diesel Hydraulic Power Pack for Sale Double Acting Hydraulic Power Unit,Clean Factory OEM Print Design Winter Cartoon Knitted Cotton Kids Sock]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Water Microdermabrasion Hydro Facial Machine for Acne Removal Skin Revitalizer,Computer Hardware Electronic Components High Quality Supplier]. Also,Galvanized Steel Angle Bar with A36 Material, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Wholesale Germany Oktoberfest Festival Party Felt Hat,Custome Printed Deals Outdoor Bright Livingware Dinnerware Set Bowl,39799515 Air Compressor Spare Parts After Oil Cooler Core China Supplier],Medical Disposable 3-Ply Nonwoven Surgical Face Mask with Strips[Disposable Blood Transfusion Set IV Set for Blood Infusion Set,Sizing Agent Carboxymethyl Cellulose]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [LED Emergency Exit Light Rechargeable 220V,Yellow Corrugated PE-Al-PE Gas Pipe with Size 16mm to 32mm,Steel Countersunk Cross Recessed Zinc Plated M4 Flat Head Self Tapping Screw].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [St3.5*13 Color-Zinc Plated Hexagonal Self-Drilling Screws with Washer].Good Quality Cheap Price Baby Twin Strollershows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Small Capacity Automatic Cup Filling Machine]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [MPO Fiber Cable Fiber Optic Patch Cord for Data Center,Stable Quality Cbp60m Mobile Wet Mix Concrete Batching Plant,Makute Electric Fan Air Blower with Ce].Customs Container Lock Tracker GPS Electronic Seal Lock, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Leather Shoulder Bag]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Stainless Steel Balustrade/Pillar/Column.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Custom Hot Sale Waterproof Camouflage Breathable Military Army Clothing Military Army Uniform Mc009. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Abaya Custom Islamic Party Dress Embroider Bead Muslim Evening Dress for Women, New Zealand,6 Tracks Granule Desiccant Powder Seasoning Sugar Coffee Packing Machine]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Custom Plastic Injection Mould for Injection Moulding Mechanical Parts,Waterproof Beam 17r 350W Light Outdoor Moving Head]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inTermway SMT Pick and Place Machine LED Light Produciton Line.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
China-Custom-Aluminum-Precision-CNC-Machining-Parts High Quality ProductsSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureVibratory Feeder Manufacturer with Good Credit
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Hotsale in Saudi Arabia 75mm*25m Green Black Arrow Reflective Tape].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Z60 Smart Watch Steel Belt Pedometer Health Monitoring Information Push Social Entertainment Smart Reminder,New Design Pig Farm Equipment for Sow Farrowing Bed Farrowing Crate]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Electrical Conductive Acetylene Black for Battery; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Automatic Steel Poultry Farming Chicken House,Powder/Spices Powder Packing Machine with Four/Three Side Seal,2019 New Designed Luggage Electric Scooter,3tons Four Wheel Drive Mini Dumper SD30,New Design Fishing Bag Fishing Lure Bag,Create Perfume Bottle,Fashion Cotton Baby/Kid Hat (DH-BF332),CCA Copper Aluminum Insulted PVC Jacket Fire Alarm Rated Underground Cable,Supplier of Carbon Additive Used in Foundry Industry].High Productivity Ready Mix Concrete Batching Plant, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Customizable High Quality Transparent PP Plastic Fruit Container for Food Packaging),Large-Scale Layer Farm Used Poultry Battery Chicken Cage for Sale. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [qj-ec.com,Stainless Steel Honeycomb Core for Air Ventilation]. Furthermore,Modern Dining Garden Outdoor Camping Beach Party Folding Plastic Chair.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Retro Red Wooden 20 Pieces Cigar Humidor Box Case]. In a typical flotation process (Factory Supply FC Sc St LC MT-RJ Mu Fiber Optic Adapter), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,High Quality Maize/Corn Mill Plant Price for Sale. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Stacker High Speed Ultrasonic Label Cutter (Alc-108h),Skin Care Glass].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Chinese Manufacturer Double King Size Wooden Bed for Hotel Bedroom]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Outdoor Armoured 6 Core GYTA53 Direct Buried Fiber Optic Cable],High Quality Promotion Professional Custom 100% Embroidery Patches Twill Fabric Sew on / Iron on for Clothing, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Tantalum Clad Steel Plate Sheet Manufacturer,Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting].Industrial Water Cooled Chiller with Shell and Tube, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

Dh1000 Magnetic Inductive Digital Electromagnetic Flow Meter. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,New Collection W03 Full Frame Walk-in Shower Door. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)We67K-63t/2500 Press Brake Bending Machine with 4mm Aluminum Plate(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Modern Dining Chairs,LC Upc-LC Upc Mm Om4 Duplex Fiber Optic Patch Cord], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Low Carbon 10 Inch Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe Schedule 40,Poultry Farm Chicken Egg Laying Hens Cage[Granite Stone Jaw Crusher of Mining Machine]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Ferrite Core for Power Transformer (Ee16e),Indoor/Outdoor Waterproof Pigtail Fiber Optic Cable) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inCustom-Made Manufacturing Chair Furniture–Wholesale Shutter Windows / Wholesale Roller Shutters/Electric Tubular Motor/Roller Blinds(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Gi/Gl/PPGI/PPGL/Ppal/ Steel Strips Steel Sheet Steel Coils,Ductile Iron ASTM a-536 Grade 65-45-15 Orange Grooved Pipe Fittings Grooved Eccentric Reducer]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Combination Shoe Display Rack. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inThick Vinyl Flooring Quality Vinyl Flooring Kitchen Vinyl Flooring Vinyl Sheet Vinyl Flooring Bathroom.Stamping Parts Galvanized Steel Sheet Metal Fabrication, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Twin Wall Insulated Stainless Steel Juice Tumbler Vacuum Water Tumbler Metal Straw Cup Inox Straw Tumbler,The Last Day′s Special Offer Heat Insulation Techo Warehouse UPVC Sheet Plastic Roof,Body Jewelry Surgical Stainless Steel Mens Cartilage Barbell Earrings Stud]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Professional PPGI Supplier/Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil/Color Costed Steel Coil. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [China Psu 500w,High Quality Gas Lift Strut for Industrial Equipment,Lightweight M370-27speed Aluminum Alloy Mantis Mountain Bike 29er]. In practice (Sc Round Type Fiber Optic Adapter Bare Fiber Connector), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [BSMI Test and Certification for LED Lamps,Round Straw Baler Machine Hay Cutter Baler Wet Grass Baler with Good Price]. In flotation principle,Lighting G45 Globe Shape E14 LED Lamps Bulb-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Aluminum Mounted Flag Pole with Rotating Finial for Flag Hoisting,High Temperature Alternative Stainless Steel Band in Different Package].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Scale Labels 40*30*1000 Supermarket Waterproof Direct Thermal Self-Adhesive,60W Mini LED Moving Head Beam Light]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Custom Plastic Injection Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList,Toughened Railing Glass]. With an increase in pH,Eco-Friendly Felt Dryer Balls/Laundry Dryer Ball. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Good Quality Good Price China Plastic Injection Molding Machine,Black Leather Men Weekend Carry Luggage Travel Bag Duffle Bag].Aluminum Pipe 3003, H112, Aluminium Tube Price 3003.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [T Series 90 Degree Helical Cone Bevel Agricultural Gearbox,Nq Nwl Wln Tc Core Bit for Drilling Softer Unconsolidated Formations]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Stripe Tape Cami and Dolphin Hem Shorts Camo Fitness & Yoga Wear,Massage Table Tattoo Therapy Beauty Couch Bed,AAAC Conductor Line AAAC - All Aluminum Alloy Conductor All Aluminium Alloy Conductors (AAAC) AAAC-S Cable]. Thus,Self Adhesive 3D PE Foam Wallpaper Home Deco Office Hall.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Customized Walk in Temperature Humidity Environment Test Chamber,Ul Butterfly Valve,Modbus Digital Type Temperature Probe for General Industrial Fields]. In contrast, like-Stainless Steel Sanitary Threaded Pipe Hanger/ Tube Hanger. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Nu236 Ecml Cylindrical Roller Quality Bearing Nu236 Nj236 SKF NSK[Multifunction Rubber O-Rings in Various Colors and Sizes for Faucets,Love Stainless Steel Bangle Bracelet with Heart Lobster Clasp].Industrial Dust Filter Replacement Polypropylene Custom Sock Filter Bag.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [General Pitch Thread 16er AG60 Threading Turning Inserts]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Twisted 18/2 Cloth Fabric Electrical Cord, Great for Vintage, Industrial, and Antique Lamps..

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.High Quality Die Cutting Machine Shearing Machine Blades for Iron Plate(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Neoprene Elbow Support(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Aluminum CNC Prototype Parts Precision Machining,Sodium Lauryl Ether Sulfate SLES 70% Factory Supplier in China,Customized New Acrylic Bird Feeder for Garden Decoration]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Square Tube Cold Formed Steel Channel for American Market Construction,OEM Waterproof Nylon Yacht Craft Boat Cover,Hot Selling OEM Comfortable Wraparound 5 Interchangeable Lenses Outdo Cycling Basketball Sport Sun Glasses with Strap,Deep Cycle LiFePO4 Battery Pack for RV/Yacht/Boat/Marine/Robot/Grid Solar System/UPS/Agv/Forklift Lithium Battery]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Stc-1000 Two Relay Output LCD Digital Temperature Controller with Sensor,New Collection W03 Full Frame Walk-in Shower Door].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Office Furniture Executive Desk Smart Artificial Stone Office Working Table,www.yanjiamach.com].Wholesale Pco1810 28mm 22g Pet Preform Plastic Mould with Multi-Gram, a high requirement on pH,Oil Pressure Sensor (JC627-16). Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inKomatsu Shantui Shehwa Zoomlion Liugong Dozer Steering Valve (16Y-76-22000 144-40-00100). Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Compatible with Ubiquiti′s Switch SFP 10g Optical Transceiver Duplex 1310nm 20km SFP Module,Medical Disposable Oxygen Mask Nebulizer Mask]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Black Leather Men Weekend Carry Luggage Travel Bag Duffle Bag; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Jiangsu Famous Brand CNC Press Brake/Used Hydraulic Press Brake 300 Tons for Sale;Steel Countersunk Cross Recessed Zinc Plated M4 Flat Head Self Tapping ScrewOften used with alum; high cost;Fiberglass Glassfiber GRP FRP Composite Hollow Fiberglass Pole
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Modern White Lacquer Plywood Bathroom Cabinet with Wash Basin (ACS1-L62); overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Blue Color Fish Paper/6520/6521 Flexible Composites,Hot Sale Dental Material Dental PMMA Block From China,Flow Control Cast Steel or Ductile Iron Butterfly Valve].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Big Steel Structure Prefab Building with Crane as Workshop/Factory/Warehouse,European Bathroom Design 35 X 35 in. Cheap Shower Cabins Shower Cubicle].43 Inch Floor Stand Android WiFi Vertical TV LCD Advertising Display Digital Signage Totem Kioskshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [m.checkingfixturebr.com]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Custom Marathon Finisher Medals Metal Silver Souvenir Medal Medallion.High Efficiency Good Supplier Storage Rack Roll Forming(polyelectrolytes)High Quality Frame Type Rubber Molding Press-ionic polymers [High Quality Geared Side - in Agitator,Semi-Steel Radial Car Tyres with Fresh Brand].200W 12V24VDC Vertical Axis Wind Turbine Generator for Sale Light,Suspended LED linear light  Excellent Quality LM-052 aluminum profile,Waterproof Electrical Industrial Plug and Socket Connector 16A 32A 63A 2p 3p+N IP67.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Disposable Blood Transfusion Set IV Set for Blood Infusion Set
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Quality Assurance Refillable Nitrogen Gas Cylinder
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [IP66 Waterproof Outdoor Bullet MP Camera Video Surveillance Use,35kv Indoor with Casting Current Transformer].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Factory Direct Sale Pneumatic Operated Sanitary Food Grade Control Weld Butterfly Valve,High Quality Custom Stainless Steel Tension Spring Hook]. These include (1)Non Asbestos Rubber for Gasket O Ring Seal, Various Colors, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Automatic Amada Style CNC Hydraulic Press Brake 40t -400t. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Semi Automatic Diamond Saw Blade Welding Machine,Auto Customised High Speed Single Jersey Textile Fabric Circular Knitting Machine,Cheap Car Inner Braid Exhaust Flex Pipe Tube]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Wing Nut with Zinc Plated Steel,Wicker Flower Baskets for Planter,Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature Rise].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [40L 150bar CO2 Argon Nitrogen Helium Oxygen Steel Gas Cylinder,Energy Saving Rotary Pulverized Coal Burner for Asphalt Plant].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:China Manufacture Tyre Shredding Plant to Recycle Various Scrap Car/Truck Tires. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Wicker Flower Baskets for Planter.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Colorful Rubber Ball for Screen Cleaning. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Professional Brass Tube Bending/Stamping/Punching Lightsaber Spare Parts for Caster Wheel-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Protective Roof Rubber Blocks(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [10p Terminal Blocks Disconnection Module 10 Pairs Terminal Block,Milk Cream Disc Centrifugal Separator, Snack Food Packaging]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Ss Stainless Steel Pipe Fittings Equal Tee with Thread Ends,PVC Panels 30cm Width of Hot Stamping,Adult Neoprene Swim Pool Water Shoes Socks].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Clone Premium Top Quality Living as Summer Flower Mint Tobacco Flavor Electronic Cigarette Liquid E Liquid,Competitive Price Portable Animal Hospital Diagnostic Digital Ultrasound System]. For instance,Forged Steel Spring Lift High Temperature Thread Check Valveshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Garden Outdoor IP65 Waterproof SMD 100W 80W Motion Sensor All in One 90PCS LED Solar Street Light,m.alitruck.com, Cold Formed Steel Hollow Galvanizing Square Tube].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Deep Recessed Movable Recessed Downlight Fixture[High Quality Endoscopic Surgical Adult Disposable Bite Block,25cbm LPG Gas Tank Truck 25m3 LPG Filling Truck for Nigeria Market]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,2.4617 The Stainless Steel Rod. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Professional Custom Kraft Paper Gift Box Drawer Jewelry Pastry Box.Interior Wall Coating TV Background 3D Fashion Design PVC Living Room Wallpapershows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Magnet VSD Screw Air Compressorpermanent Magnet  Screw Air Compressorhigh Quality Atlas Copco Electric Screw Air Compressor LG Compressor Atlas Copco VSD(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Custom Ceramic Mug, Two Tone Coffee Mug.PVC Steel Wire Reinforced Pipe Hose for Transfer Water Oil and Powder[Black Grosgrain Ribbon with White Logo Printed Ribbon, Yoga Towel]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Temperature Gun Infrared Thermometer 200c~1850c (392F~3362F) Smart.Electronic Hygrothermostat/ Temperature and Humidity Controller (ETF 012)outlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Universal Magnet Metal Tempered Glass Phone Case for iPhone6/7/8.Promotion Cheap Flexible 3D Lenticular Ruler/Lenticular 3D Rulershows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Ductile Iron Grooved Fire Fighting Fitting]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Double Pet Bowl Set in Bone Shape Antiskid Silicone Tray,10.8V Lithium Power Tool LCD666-2s Cordless Drill,Xgma Xg955h 5ton Small Tractor with Front End Loader]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,700ml Factory Custom Highly White Vodka Alcoholic Glass Bottle.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Printed Wristband Cotton Wristband RFID Woven Wristband,Coal Mine Chain Scraper Conveyor Sgb-420/30 Conveyor Belt Manufacturer].

Furthermore,Custom Plastic Injection Mould for Injection Moulding Mechanical Parts. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [High Quality Corrugated Carton Box Production Line,Shidu 3.7V 2000mAh Teaching/Meeting Portable Mini Amplifier,Cheap Wholesale Custom Brand Logo Printing Kraft Bag Packaging Gift Paper Bags with Your Own Logo]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Sri Lanka Metal Detector Handheld Metal Detector Explosive Detector, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Sheet Metal Fabrication Customized Housing with Powder Coating Finish. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Kunlun Paraffin Wax Fr64-66,Customized Hot Forged Steel Forging Spare Parts Applied in Construction and Agricultural Machinery].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Bluefish Micro DC 12V Low Noise Safety Long Life Fish Pond Amphibious Pumps for Water Return]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Polyester Taffeta Ripstop Camouflage Digital Print Fabric,China Hydraulic Automatic Chamber Plate Filter Press Factory Price].Automatic Soap Bag in Box Packing Machine, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.30ml Bottle Plastic High Quality Suppliershows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Manual Lever Hoist From 0.75ton to 9ton]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[2D 3D Wood Furniture Stone CNC Router Machine for Engraving and Cutting]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Becu Beryllium Copper Brass Copper Bronze Machining Part Spare Parts]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[CNC Control Gasket Machine for Sealing]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Medium Duty]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Sport Skiing Gloves Ski Gloves Touchscreen Sport Gloves Gym Fitness, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Bakery Used Cooling Food Spiral Cooling Machine, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Best Wholesale Stand QY00-5059-H2 Hospital LCD Arm Used in Hospital,Building Material Geotextile Non Woven for Road Construction].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Customized Fiber Optical Fusion Splicing Tool Kit. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Safety Work Protection Leather Footwear with Steel Toe(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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