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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Commercial Boneless Fresh Meat Slicer Machine for Meat Factory,Gi Binding Wire Galvanized Gi Iron Wire with Free Sample]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Automatic Nonwoven Bag Making Machine,Axe with Plastic Handle/TPR Handle Axes]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Professional Brass Tube Bending/Stamping/Punching Lightsaber Spare Parts for Caster Wheel,Isoflex Insulation Rubber Foam Pipe for Air Conditoners,Automatic Soak Tea Bag Packing Machine], sedimentation or flotation [Abrasion Resistant Mosaic Ceramic Tile Mat with Low Price,Molyboard Hot Sale Smart Interactive Whiteboard for Conference or Education System] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [2.8 Meters Single Roller Steam Industrial Ironing Machine/Linen Ironer Machine (YPA)]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [High Quality Aluminum Street Light Pole,4*2 Dongfeng Refrigerator Truck]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Synthetic Staple Fibers Needle Punched Geotechnical Cloth,Auto Power off Motor Rotary Sifter Machinery Vibrating Sieve,Ms Gi Pipe Dn15~Dn400 Gi Pipe List]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [2mm-6mm Thickness Tape Against High Temperature Facing]High Quality China Supplier Made CNC Machine with High Precision Tolerance[Recessed COB LED Downlight 5W 7W 12W,Makeup Brushes Cosmetic,Washami Private Label Travel Portable 2 Flavours Refreshing Toothpaste]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Industrial Alumina Ceramic Insulating Sleeve[DC Brushless 24V 1nm 200rpm Electrical DC Motor for Industrial Fan].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Ce Certification New Multifunction 4 in 1 Mini Hydraulic Torque Converter Bucket Backhoe Loader Small Tractor Backhoe 3ton 4ton 5ton 6ton 7ton 8ton), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Modern Dining Garden Outdoor Camping Beach Party Folding Plastic Chair,Industrial Ultrasonic Cleaning Machine Rinsing Drying Function Muti Tanks Ultrasonic Cleaner]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [High Speed Passenger Elevator,Kraft Paper Soup Bowl Soup Cup with Lid 8oz/12oz/16oz/32oz High Quality on Sale]. However,Capsule Size 3 Empty Hard Gelatin Capsules 100% Bovine Gelatin Vacant Capsule, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Wholesale 10kg 25kg Raschel Sacks for Packaging Vegetables,Nobeth 220V Mobile Car Washing Machine with Spray Gun,Low Price Fashion Unique Plastic Zipper]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Indoor/Outdoor Waterproof Pigtail Fiber Optic Cable,Best Soft Airplane Quilt Supplier for Airline,Special Door Window Frame Plugs Sheet Metal Stamping Parts]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Portable 3600 mAh Slim Power Bank Battery Case for iPhone 6/7/8,Mellow OEM Plastic Pet House Ml-HP004]. Also,LED Pixel Light IP66 Waterproof Outdoor LED Point Light Source LED DOT Pixel Light, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Refractory Glass Wool Thermal Insulation Fibre Glass Wool,Fd4.0 Ton Forklift Truck with Chinese Engine and Side Shifter,Mini Small Garden Excavator Digging Work],Komatsu Shantui Shehwa Zoomlion Liugong Dozer Steering Valve (16Y-76-22000 144-40-00100)[Big Capacity Good Quality Commercial Display Visi Display Cooler,Beacon Marketing Suppliers/Manufacturers for Sale]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Cheap Rrubber Sport Silicone Waterproof Wristband for Gym, Lidocaine with Good Shipping Way,Column or Pillar Type Rubber Curing Press Machine/PLC Control Rubber Vulcanizing Machine].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Small Economic CNC Vertical Machining Center/CNC Milling Machine Tc-960/V9].Corona Discharge Ozone Generatorshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Purple Color Fire Pit Glass Recycled Crushed Glass Mirror Cullet]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Manufacturer Hot Sale Tube Making Stainless Steel Pipe Mill,Shanghai Tj-420f Automatic Flour Packing Machinery with High Quality,Baijia Spring Stock and Custom Spring Electrical Conducting Spring Trampoline Spring].Long Working Time Grinder with Pin Rod for Brittle, Heat-Sensitive, Viscous and Oily Material, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Small Aluminum Radiator]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.70ton 75ton 80ton Module Air Cooled Screw Water Chiller.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Cheap Rrubber Sport Silicone Waterproof Wristband for Gym. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [5052 / 6061 /7075 / 5083 Custom Parts /Machining Aluminum Parts Automation Industry, 0.40 High Tensile Hose Wire,Metal Floor Decking Cold Roll Forming Machine]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [580ml Glass Drinking Water Bottle with Silicone Sleeve&Stainless Steel Lid,ABS Medical Treat Cart Hospital ABS Emergency Trolley for Patient]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inTeflon Fluorine Lined Butterfly Valve Wafer Type.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Tungsten Carbide Rods with H6 Grinding SurfaceSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureFactory Price 0.5mm Clear Plastic Pet Film for Vacuum Forming
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [High Precision Custom OEM ODM Plastic Auto Parts Injection Moulding].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [High Quality Factory Wholesale Industrial Portable 9000 Lbs Hydraulic Winch Manufacturers,Custom Design High Quality Fancy Colorful Mens Dress Socks]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Shockproof Inflatable Air Bag with Air Filling for Powdered Milk and Red Wine Packaging; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Aluminum Electric Shock Stun Guns with Strong LED (X5),Interactive Writing Board for Teaching Equipment with Free Driver (IWB4700),RF EMS Mesogun Injector Mesotherapie Gun Injection Machine Rejuvenation Wrinkle,Oil Pressure Sensor (JC627-16),Remote Crown Semi Refrigerated Showcase Cooler,Tablet Security Alarm Stand,2 Sides Embossed Sheet Melamine Chipboard for Furniture,High Quality Gas Spring Strut Gas Shock for Wall Bed,Wholesale Older Childrens/Boys/Girls Rain Jacket Cartoon Rain Suit Colorful Raincoat for Kids].Stainless Steel 2PC Ball Valve with Automatic Reset Handle, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Cotton/Polyester 7 Gauge Safety String Knitted Work Glove with PVC Dotted on Both Side),60W Mini LED Moving Head Beam Light. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Thermostat Tn Stn FSTN Va Segment LCD,Fashion Retail Store Fixtures Design Makeup Store Display Interior Design]. Furthermore,Affordable Price 7005, 7022, 7050, 7475 Aluminium Round Alloy Pipe.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [PVC+PMMA/ ASA Coloured Glazed Roof Ridge Tile Plastic Production Line]. In a typical flotation process (Lenton Type Bar Lock Couplers with Bolt), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Aluminium Profile Curtain Wall with Luxury Decoration Home. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [China Supplier PVC Pressure Pipe Fitting Rubber Ring Joint Pn10,PVC Manufacturer PVC Resin Sg7 for Plastic Products].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Bioplasm Nls Bioresonance Body Scaning and Analysis Physical Therapy Equipment]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [SHMP 68% Sodium Hexametaphosphate for Detergent],Transparent Synthetic Quartz Plate Jgs1, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [6D Galvanic Facial Machine Eye Lifting Skin Care Beauty Equipment,4 Styles Blue Glass Crystal Butt Beads Spiral Plug].6063 Aluminum Extrusion Profile Tube Punch Hole Anodized Pipe, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.Stainless Steel Cooking Pot Cassreole Sp3-104t

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Ductile Iron Grooved Fire Fighting Fitting(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Usb Data Transfer Cable, Color/ Clear Window Glass for Purcurement], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Amazon Inserts Electric Fireplace with Gas Heaters Fan Modern Furniture,Ventilation Axial Fan for Cooling System[Swiss Machining Copper Steel Plastic Metal Titanium Aluminum CNC Machine Parts]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Hydraulic Electric Folding Bending Machine Sheet Metal,Blank Sweatshirt Cotton Sweatshirts with Different Colors Nw305W) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inASTM D2846 Schedule 40 CPVC 4-Ways Fittings Cross–New Design Pig Farm Equipment for Sow Farrowing Bed Farrowing Crate(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [OEM Wholesaler Custom Logo Blank Oversize Sweatshirt Men,Flexible Silicone Bowl Cover]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Ductile Iron Sand Casting with ISO9001: 2008. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inCast Iron Fry Pan with Handle Cast Iron Skillet.Best Selling Non Woven Fabric Qulited Moving Blankets, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Exhibition Product Display Racks Pape Cardboard Display Stand,Malleable Fittings Union, Mexico]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Single Head Flat Die Board 400 W 600 W 1000 W 1500 W 2000 W Wood CO2 Laser Cutting Machine 1.8X1.2m for Sale. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [All Kinds of High Quality Brilliant Green,Long Sleeve Lace Beaded Muslim Bridal Gown Wedding Dress,2019 Latest Designs 120GSM Luxury Quality Bed in a Bag Comforter Set]. In practice (Double Layers Sponge Face Mask with Valve), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Jinan Sunny Aluminum Double Head Cutting Saw for Aluminum (LJZ2-450X3700),Power Tool Spare Part (Gear for Makita 2414B)]. In flotation principle,40L 150bar CO2 Argon Nitrogen Helium Oxygen Steel Gas Cylinder-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Aluninum Air Register Grille for Ventilation Use,Cbd Oil Cartridge Vape Pen Battery Mod 350mAh Preheating Box Mod Vaporizer Bud Touch Vape Pen Key Box Mod Battery Kit E Cigarette].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Preofessional Designed Solar Power Supply Solution Plan for Bts Station,Roll Paper to Sheet Paper Cutting Machine Paper Cutter Price]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [High Quality Rice Packing Pouch for Sale,Well Polished Stainless Steel Pipe]. With an increase in pH,Furniture Grade 18mm Laminate Melamine MDF Board for Decoration. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.High-Yield Automatic Pet Food Production Machine

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Small Tripod Table Lamp Furniture/Lighting/LED Lighting /Lamp/Decoration/ LED/Bulb/Tripod/Wooden Lamp,8W Energy Saving LED Outdoor Solar Security Motion Lighting].Dog Puppy Squeaker Plush Toy Training Chew Simulation Pet Products.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Vertical H Frame Hydraulic Press Machine Deep Drawing Press Price,Polyurethane Mesh Vibrating Screen]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [110V-240V LED Filament Bulb Globe Cafe Patio String Light,Factory of Bq Nq Hq Pq Reaming Shell with 3%Discount,Natural Birch F&B Veneer Furniture Plywood]. Thus,Xinjing Wide-Mouth Kitchen Glass Square Jar for Spice, Seasoning.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [ Graphitized Recarburizer,Powder Material Hollow Blade Dryer for Foodstuff Industry,Travel Duffel Bag]. In contrast, like-Retro Red Wooden 20 Pieces Cigar Humidor Box Case. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,2000X3000mm Wood CNC Router Cutter Machine for Wooden Door Table Bed[Sheet Metal Processing Stainless Steel Galvanized Metal Parts Stamping Bending Production,Hotel Restaurant Polyester Jacquard Tablecloth].35L Electric Car Mini Fridge.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Liaoning Shenyang Densen Customized Economic Silicon Carbide Resistance Induction Sintering Furnace Vhs 449]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Commercial Boneless Fresh Meat Slicer Machine for Meat Factory.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.50kg Colorful PP Woven Block Bottom Valve Cement Bags(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)6098-3909 10 Pin Female Unsealed Automotive Wire Harness Suppliers Sumitomo Connector(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [5 Foot Plastic Coated Chain Link Fence,High Purity Customized Ceramic Boron Nitride Bn Pbn Crucible/Parts/Boat/Substrate,Quality A4 Red / Orange /Green PVC Lever Arch File Folder]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Reusable UHF RFID Cable Sealing Tag for Container/Logistic Tracking,Light Blue Color Glass Drink Bottle for Beer,NdFeB Strong Disc Magnets Neo Magnetic,Ice Block Making Machine for Making Ice (BD-A20)]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [China Building Materials Construction Space Structure Design Steel Frame Structure,China Factory Direct Custom Ductile Iron Floor Drain Grate].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Lgd-4033 /Ligandrol 1165910-22-4 Sarms Powders,EV Super Fast Charger Power Module].2.5mm/ 4mm/6mm/10mm AC/DC Copper Wire Solar PV Photovoltaic Cable, a high requirement on pH,High-Pressure Indoor Decorative Material PVC Laminated Wall Panel. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inStainless Steel Spring Snap Hooks. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Q35y Series Hydraulic Combined Punch and Cutting Machine,Agricultural Mini Tiller Farm Wheel 62cc Cultivator]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;1ml 2ml Feelderma Dermal Filler Syringe Face Beauty Dermal Filler Facial Sodium Hyaluronate Gel Dermal Filler Inject; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Galvanized Steel Angle Bar with A36 Material;Medical Disposable 3-Ply Nonwoven Surgical Face Mask with StripsOften used with alum; high cost;Customs Container Lock Tracker GPS Electronic Seal Lock
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Stainless Steel Balustrade/Pillar/Column; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Hot Selling Design Fashion Jewelry 925 Silver Big Clear CZ Fancy Jewelry Set,Luxury Key Card Hotel Lock,Portable Power Generator Solar Panel Kit for Home Use].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [One Step Medical Diagnostic Rapid Dengue Ns1 Antigen Test Kits (Colloidal Gold) Dengue Test Kit,Flexible PUR TPU Spiral Cable Coiled Power Cable for Automation Intelligent Robot Arm].Prepinted Steel Sheet for Building PPGL Tileshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [13 Pockets Expanding File Organizer]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Custom Hot Sale Waterproof Camouflage Breathable Military Army Clothing Military Army Uniform Mc009.China-Custom-Aluminum-Precision-CNC-Machining-Parts High Quality Products(polyelectrolytes)Vibratory Feeder Manufacturer with Good Credit-ionic polymers [Autoclave Indicator Tape for 132 Centigrade and 121 Centigrade,Professional CNC Machining Service Stainless Steel Square Flange].Electrical Conductive Acetylene Black for Battery,High Productivity Ready Mix Concrete Batching Plant,Large-Scale Layer Farm Used Poultry Battery Chicken Cage for Sale.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Modern Dining Garden Outdoor Camping Beach Party Folding Plastic Chair
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.High Quality Maize/Corn Mill Plant Price for Sale
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Sam-400 81L High Quality Electric Constant Temperature Drying Oven,Multiple Style Jewelry Packaging Box/Ring Box Custom Logo Jewelry Box].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [10 Head 14 Head Multihead Weigher for Pouch Packing Machine,Glass Jar/Bottle/ Honey / Jam / Salad / Pickle / Canning Jar/ Mason Jar/ Food Storage Jar 50ml/100ml/150ml/200ml/250ml/380ml]. These include (1)High Quality Promotion Professional Custom 100% Embroidery Patches Twill Fabric Sew on / Iron on for Clothing, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Industrial Water Cooled Chiller with Shell and Tube. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Pet Chunky Glitter Powder for Arts and Crafts/Decoration /Cosmetic,Black Conductive Plastic Clip Board,FM UL Approved Grooved Fittings of Eccentric Reducer]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Design Relax Chair,Extrusion Production Line for Plastic HDPE/PE/PPR Electrical Conduit/Water Pipe,Single Stage Inline High Shear Homogenizer Pump].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [6098-3909 10 Pin Female Unsealed Automotive Wire Harness Suppliers Sumitomo Connector,Superior Quality High Impact Strength UHMWPE Sheet].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Dh1000 Magnetic Inductive Digital Electromagnetic Flow Meter. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,New Collection W03 Full Frame Walk-in Shower Door.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,2020 Women Jogging Activewear Tracksuit High Elasticity Workout Clothes Sportswear Sport Leggings Fitness Apparel Running Wear Training Yoga Clothing. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,We67K-63t/2500 Press Brake Bending Machine with 4mm Aluminum Plate-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Low Carbon 10 Inch Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe Schedule 40(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Green Construction Netting /Construction Debris Netting,Different Color & Size AA1100&3003 H16/H18 PE/PVDF Color Aluminum Coil,Wooden Door Manufacturing Machinery China Video]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Gift Packaging Box Packaging Box with Ribbon and Coloring Print,Hot Galvanized 4 Steps Aluminum or Steel Portable Folding Stairs,Prepaid Game VIP Members Plastic PVC Cards with Magnetic Strip].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Factory Custom Aluminum Cabinet Alloy,3D Stereoscopic Network Structure Cermamic Foam Filter for Alumina Foundry]. For instance,Vvvf Control Safety Escalator with 30 Degreeshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Great Flavors Energy E Cig Liquid,API 6D High Pressure Dual Plate Wafer Check Valve,Marblel Decorative-High Pressure Laminate Board/Compact Laminate].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Poultry Farm Chicken Egg Laying Hens Cage[LCD for Huawei-Honor-9-Lite LCD Screen Touch Screen Touch Panel Replacement,Plough Parts for Agricultural Tillage Tool]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Ferrite Core for Power Transformer (Ee16e). This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Indoor/Outdoor Waterproof Pigtail Fiber Optic Cable.New Design LED Panel Light 6W/9W/15W/20Wshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Wholesale Shutter Windows / Wholesale Roller Shutters/Electric Tubular Motor/Roller Blinds(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Stamping Parts Galvanized Steel Sheet Metal Fabrication.Professional PPGI Supplier/Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil/Color Costed Steel Coil[5V 2A Cell Phones Power Charger Mobile Phone USB Wall Charger with UL FCC,Emergency Use Filtering Self-Rescue Respirator Fire Mask]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Lighting G45 Globe Shape E14 LED Lamps Bulb.2.5 Ton Battery Operate Forklift with Side Shiter for Saleoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Eco-Friendly Felt Dryer Balls/Laundry Dryer Ball.Automatic battery layer chicken cage for layer/egg chicken/henshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Microfiber Blanket Warm Flannel Fleece Kids Printing Blankets Bed Throws]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Luxury Best Cat in on a Tree House Scratcher Furniture Manufacturer,Stackable Interlocking Steel Padded Used Party Event Dining Banquet Auditorium Church Chairs,Inflatable Column / Pillar with Colorful LED Light for Party Decoration]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Aluminum Pipe 3003, H112, Aluminium Tube Price 3003.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [4 Wheels Heavy Duty Hand Trolley Push Cart,Diesel Fuel Filter Stainless Steel Filter Basket].

Furthermore,Self Adhesive 3D PE Foam Wallpaper Home Deco Office Hall. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [High Manganese Impactor Parts Blow Bar Suit Terex Impact Crusher,8MP 4K Hikvision Fixed Security Ipc Camera with 30m IR Ds-2CD2385fwd-I,Aluminum Mountian Bicycle MTB Frame with 15.5inch 16.5inch 17.5inch Optional]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Stainless Steel Sanitary Threaded Pipe Hanger/ Tube Hanger, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Nu236 Ecml Cylindrical Roller Quality Bearing Nu236 Nj236 SKF NSK. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Automatic Nonwoven Bag Making Machine,China Supplier of Circuar Push Pull Male Female Feg Waterproof Connector].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Optical Fiber Duplex Round Cable for Patch Cord]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [7075 T6 Cookware Aluminum Round Circle,Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part Sleeve (YHB-1002-2)].Industrial Dust Filter Replacement Polypropylene Custom Sock Filter Bag, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Steel H Beam Column for Steel Structure Buildingshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Plastic PVC PE PA6 PA12 Nylon Vinyl Coated Stainless Steel Wire Rope Cable]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Rigid High Quality Black Sheets Cooling Tower PVC Fill (All type)]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[China Economic CNC Air Plasma Oxyfuel Cutting Machine for Metal]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Zhuoxing Fast Speed Top Enterprise Sticker/ Kt Board /PVC/PP Board/Hibiscus Plate/Acrylic Cutting Machine with Plottertextile Labels AMD 3D Display]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Plastic Pet Bottle Drying Machine / Bottle Dryer]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Twisted 18/2 Cloth Fabric Electrical Cord, Great for Vintage, Industrial, and Antique Lamps., and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,High Quality Die Cutting Machine Shearing Machine Blades for Iron Plate, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Dh1000 Magnetic Inductive Digital Electromagnetic Flow Meter,Quality Assurance Refillable Nitrogen Gas Cylinder].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Neoprene Elbow Support. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Oil Pressure Sensor (JC627-16)(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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