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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Sudesh Rathilal
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
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Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].
2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation
Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Thermal Insulation High-Temperature PTFE Coated Fiberglass Fabric]. In a typical flotation process (Supply UL PVC Tape/PVC Electrical Tape), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Made for You Universal Wireless RF Remote Control Duplicator Yet088. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Monofilament Fibrillated Twist Wave Polypropylene Fiber PP Fiber for Concrete,m.hybonsecurity-eas.com].
Figure 4.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Low Voltage Multi Core Flexible Electric Control Power Cable for Instrument and Signal Cable]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [European Plug Level VI 5V 10A Power Adapter Supply 60W DC Adaptor for LED Light],2017 Newest Postpartum Rehabilitation Equipment Low Frequency Therapy with Electordes, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Water Filter Use Bulk Anthracite Filter Media for Sale,Caustic Soda Pearls 99% Factory].Molybdenum Lanthanum Alloy Plate for Vacuum Furnace, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
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2.2.Aluminium Profile Extrusion Machinery Product
Polymer molecular weight (MW)Factory Sale Coriander Seed Extract 10: 1 Powder Natural Material Coriander Seed Extract 10: 1 Bulk Coriander Seed Extract 10: 1(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Pure Sinewave Solar Inverter Controller Combined with MPPT Controller and AC Charger,Bending Press Mining Machine Hydraulic Cylinder], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Single Stage Inline High Shear Homogenizer Pump,Food Grade Selenium Enriched Yeast Powder[860-960MHz UHF Alien H3 RFID Tag Dry Inlay Wet Inlay]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (62000L 25 Tons LPG Gas High Pressure Gas Tank Trailer,New Outdoor Sport Wooden Viking Lawn Game with Official Size W01b080) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown in Black Excavator Track Rollers–Supply Colored Viton NBR Silicone Auto Rubber O Ring(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Automobile Engine Accessories Plastic Parts Injection Mold,Electric Rat Trap]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Alarm System Infrared Photocell Sensor Yet610,Holykell Factory Capacitive Fuel Sensor for Tank Level Measurement Hpt621]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Ecg Trunk Cable High Quality Supplier,Commercial Circular Sock Knitting Machine]. With an increase in pH,Chihu Luxury Electric Leather Recliner Home Cinema Sofa, Power Recliner Home Theater Seating. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.
2.2.Secondary Hot Rolled Steel Coil 201 Baby Stainless Steel Coil for Tubing
There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Bathroom Anti Fog Mirror/Rectangle LED Mirror,Vital Injector].C3 C5 Precision 14mm Miniature Ball Screw.
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Light Blue Glass Bottles with Starfish Seahorse Shell Stoppers]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Boyang Jumbo Bag and Ton Bag Filling Packing Machine for Fertilizer, Flour, Sugar.
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Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
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Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:Interior Wall Coating TV Background 3D Fashion Design PVC Living Room Wallpaper. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,12V 24V 220V Digital Temperature Controller.
Dispersions: In this case,AC Electric Induction Capacitor Motor for Refrigerator Fan/Range Hood/Exhaust Fan. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Air Filter Series of Pre Filter and Bag Filters-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Automatic Small Juice Pouches with Spout Packing Filling Machine(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Desheng Precision Stainless Steel and Aluminum Brass Copper Bronze Sheet Component High Speed Forming Pieces Progressive Shaped Terminal Metal Part Stamping[CCA Copper Aluminum Insulted PVC Jacket Fire Alarm Rated Underground Cable,Supplier of Carbon Additive Used in Foundry Industry]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Sand Casting/ Precision Loss Wax/ Brass CNC Machining Copper Valve Body Heat Forging Part. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Factory Produce Custom Casual Leisure Stitches Outdoor Visor Washed Sports Protection Chino Suede Denim Polyester Golf Baseball Hat Cap with Assorted Colors.Customizable High Quality Transparent PP Plastic Fruit Container for Food Packagingshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-0.2um PVDF Filter Membrane for Air and Gas Filtration(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Chinese Manufacturer Double King Size Wooden Bed for Hotel Bedroom]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Outdoor Armoured 6 Core GYTA53 Direct Buried Fiber Optic Cable,Tantalum Clad Steel Plate Sheet Manufacturer,Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,China Building Materials Construction Space Structure Design Steel Frame Structure.
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [www.findcarmirror.com,LC Upc-LC Upc Mm Om4 Duplex Fiber Optic Patch Cord].
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Eco-Friendly Vegetable Oil Cast Iron Multi Frying Pan, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Interlocking Rubber Tiles/Colorful Rubber Paver/Gym Rubber Tile, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Aluminum Mounted Flag Pole with Rotating Finial for Flag Hoisting,High Temperature Alternative Stainless Steel Band in Different Package].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Magic Concentrate Laundry Liquid Detergent. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
Acknowledgments
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Yidek AC Single Phase Amperemeter with Multi-Specification Current Transformers(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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