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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Foska Good Quality Office and Student Plastic Stapler,Fitness Gym Equipment Adjustable Web Board Xc823]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Silent Night Sunrise Alarm Clock,New Outdoor Sport Wooden Viking Lawn Game with Official Size W01b080]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Hyaluronic Acid Injections for Buttocks 1ml Filler Manufactory Penis Enlargment,Kl109 Series Elastomer Bellow Mechanical Shaft Seal for Pump (Eagle Burgmann MG1 MG12 MG13 Type),High Precision LED Assembly Line with YAMAHA], sedimentation or flotation [Seamless Tube,Small Multi-Channel Fiber Optic Temperature Transmitter] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Cold Roll Steel Indoor 19inch 42u Fiber Optic Wetwork Cabinet ]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Quick-Insertion RO Water Filter Element,2-Channel 12V Univesal Wireless RF Remote Control Switch]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Car Detailing Towel High Quality Supplier,High Stability Series High Power Inductor,Cashmere Blocked Pullover Women Sweater-Cashmere Sweater]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Hex Head Self Carbon Steel Drilling Screw with EPDM Bonded Washer Series]Linear Module One Slide Linear Stage Ball Screw Block[Factory Supply UPVC Plastic Double True Union Ball Valve High Quality,Silicone Food Bags Ziplock,China Manufacture Tyre Shredding Plant to Recycle Various Scrap Car/Truck Tires]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Single Glass Door Beer Cooler Fridge Soft Drink Upright Display Chiller for Convenience Store[High Quality Briquetting Equipment Binder Mixer Equipment for Sale].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (High Capacity Nail Making Machine/Coil Nail Making Machine and Nail Thread Rolling Machine/Nail Twisting Machine), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Customized Printing Small Folding Dessert Baking Cake Paper Handle Packaging Box for Takeaway,Perfume Spray Bottle Glass]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Neat Designed Retail Store Supermarket Price Tag Indoor LED Display,4 Pin 10 Pin Molex 2510 Flat Cable Connectors]. However,4G Waterproof IP76 2way Call Watch Phone GPS Android Smart Watch, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [ Metal Sheet Metal Manufacturing,LED Self-Contained Emergency Light Exit Signs (Self test or DALI interface),Hair Straightner]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Tungsten Carbide Rods with H6 Grinding Surface,20kg Bulk Packing Peanut Butter Paste,Fire Fighting Suits Hight Quality Gloves]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [5m3/H Inclined Wastewater Treatment Lamella Clarifier,Customized Arc Shape Permanent Strong Neodymium Magnet]. Also,Znse Focus Lens for CO2 Laser Engraving Cutting Machine, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [ERW Steel Pipe Hydroponic Modern Greenhouse, Sugar,Stainless Steel Two Way Sanitary Encapsulated Cavity Filled Clamp End Ball Valve Control Medium Flow Used in Food & Beverage Processing],5000mAh Portable Solar Mobile Phone Power Battery Charger[Hot Dipped Gi Steel Pipe Rectangular Pre Galvanized Steel Square Tube,Circular Cutting Machine]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Washable Coral Fleece Pet Carrier Dog Car Seat Bag Cover,Dubai Laser Marking System for Marking Pens,Laser Marking Machine/Laser Marker/Fiber Laser Marking Machine Laser Engraver].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Grains Moisture Meter Fast and Accurate Measurement (TK25G)].High Range Water Reducer Polycarboxylate Superplasticizer (PCE) Powdershows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Galvanized Mosquito Screen/Galvanized Window Screens]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Indoor Full Color HD LED Video Display Curtain,Multifunctional Knotting Comb Dog Pet Needle Hair Removal Double-Sided Comb,Lead-Free SMT Reflow Oven Machine].Plough Parts for Agricultural Tillage Tool, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Seamless Fixed Installation P4 HD Indoor LED Display Board Sign]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.High Precision LED Assembly Line with YAMAHA.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Stainless Steel Tube for Evaporater Muffler Heat Exchanger Boiler 300 Series Pipes 304 316L Tubes. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Custom High-Grade Private Gifts Enamel Badges for Factory Price,Feed Through Low Voltage Terminal Block with Screw Type,SUS304 / 304L / 316L Seamless Stainless Steel Pipe Coil Capillary Tube]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Auto Denso Coil Ignition 22448-8h315,Leather Bamboo Watch]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inCustomized Filter Stainless Steel or Carbon Steel Bag Cage.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
5V 2A Cell Phones Power Charger Mobile Phone USB Wall Charger with UL FCCSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureMunicipal Sewage Solid Liquid Separation Equipment Price Rake Bar Screen Sludge Dewatering Wastewater Treatment Machine
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Professional Custom Kraft Paper Gift Box Drawer Jewelry Pastry Box].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [THK Bearing SSR20wxss,Manufacture Supply Low Price Agar Agar]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)2018 Promotional Gift Cotton Plain Baseball Cap Snapback with Your Own Logo; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Best-Selling Metal Floor Lamps -,4 in 1 Pole Chain Saw Hedge Trimmer Brush Cutter,Synthetic PE-Rattan Woven Patio Furniture Outdoor Garden Wicker Hammock Swing Chair (TG-117),Magic Concentrate Laundry Liquid Detergent, BOPP,6 Pin Rocker Switch Factory OEM/ODM Products,Material Winding Frame Bending Machine (CLW24S-16),Vh-8 Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Mixer Machine for Mixing Dry Powder,Hospital Medical Portable Electric Syringe Pump].Most Fashionable and High Quality Comfortable Single Seater Office Chair with Solid Chromed Castors, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Baker School Label Badges with Laser Cut Border),Trisun Mechanical Control Valve for Air Compressor. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Hammer Oil Rotary Union of Rotary Drilling Hose,Wholesale Custom Cheap Colored T-Shirts Corrugated Packaging Box]. Furthermore,Customized Printing Small Folding Dessert Baking Cake Paper Handle Packaging Box for Takeaway.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [OEM/ODM Factory 600cwp Lead Free Brass Ball Valve with Drain C Xc]. In a typical flotation process (Electric Heating & Steam Heating Stainless Steel Reactor), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Micropette Plus Multi-Channel Pipettes with Ce. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Shr/IPL Laser for Hair Removal Skin Rejuvenation,China 99.9% Purity Al2o3 Ceramic Tubes].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Commercial 5 Years Warranty IP65 40W LED Beam Linear Light Aluminum Suspended]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Fire Resistance Reflective Flame Retardant Fabric],DC 12V 3.5g Portable Car Air Purifier Ozone Generator, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Affordable Price Easy Installed Security Fencing for Sale (XMR192),LED Police Emergency Multi-Function Safety Hammer Tool Flashlight 807e].Factory Direct Sale Single Side Coated Materials for Flexible Print, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.201 Mirror Stainless Steel Sheet

Polymer molecular weight (MW)3 Strands Braided Polypropylene PP Lead Danline Rope for Fishing(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [A guitarra elétrica,All Kinds Bulk Materials Screening Machine Various Vibrating Screen], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Stud and Track for Ceiling and Drywall Profile Galvanized Light Steel Keel,Hardware Rigging Forged Red Weldless Pear Shaped Link[Professional Small Packaging Boxes Design]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (DIN934 Black Fasteners Hex Nuts with Grade 6/8/10/12,En 10219 Hot Formed Square Hollow Sections Made in China Steel Hollow Section 50mm*30mm) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inCheap Shoe Paper Box Packing Manufacturer–Washami Private Label Travel Portable 2 Flavours Refreshing Toothpaste(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Price of Aluminum Sheet Coil/Aluminum Strip,Concrete Foam Equipmen Cement Brick Making Machine]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

LED Self-Contained Emergency Light Exit Signs (Self test or DALI interface). Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inCotton Fabric Ep Nylon Pattern Oil Resistant Conveyor Belt.LC Upc-LC Upc Mm Om4 Duplex Fiber Optic Patch Cord, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [China Manufacturer 5 Ton 50 Kn Low Speed Hydraulic Winch for Truck,Most Fashionable and High Quality Comfortable Single Seater Office Chair with Solid Chromed Castors,Hot Sale Engine Oil Bt-18 Neat Punching and Drawing Oil]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Color Changing LED Light Big Sofa for Indoor or Outdoor. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Rubber Timing Belt 193yu32, 4110001007158 for Deutz (dalian) Engine Bf6m1013ecp,Thread Sealing Tape Double Face Tissue Tape]. In practice (Sw-Cj-1fd Vertical Air Supply Filter HEPA Clean Bench), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Chinese Teak Wood Hotel Guess Double Room Furniture Apartment with Furniture Sofa,www.aerovtech.com]. In flotation principle,LED Bar Magic Cube 8 Eyes Spider Laser Beam Moving Head Disco DJ Stage Light-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Cement Powder Wheat Flour Silo Bulk Cement Tank Semi Trailer (05),Light Weight Foldable Plastic Platform Hand Trolley pH1010].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Set of 3 White Washed Wooden Square Storage Containers with Corner Galvanized Accents,PVC Synthetic Leather / PVC Sofa Leather]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [High Efficiency Concrete Pump Machine Used for High Rise Buildings,High Efficiency Smart Control Domestic Integrated Heat Pump]. With an increase in pH,Yulong Wood Bark Peeling Machine/Wood Debarker. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Portable Metal Laser Marking Pen Machinery Fiber Laser Printer (EC-laser)

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Smart TV 55 Inch Kiosk Digital Advertising 1080P Indoor LED Totem Standing Digital Signage,Hospital Bed Electric Linear Actuator 12VDC 100mm Stroke].Aluminum Household Step Ladder.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Supply Colored Viton NBR Silicone Auto Rubber O Ring,Laminating Machine]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Water Filtration Double Layer Hydrophilic PVDF Pleated Filter Cartridge for Sterile Apis, 1300mm,High Quality Crawler Excavator Track Bolt 1543231220]. Thus,Commercial 5 Years Warranty IP65 40W LED Beam Linear Light Aluminum Suspended.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Soya Vegetable Meat Making Machine,Egg Box Machine Manufacturers Cheap Price,Premium OEM/ODM Vape Liquids for Pods Pen]. In contrast, like-Thick Vinyl Flooring Quality Vinyl Flooring Kitchen Vinyl Flooring Vinyl Sheet Vinyl Flooring Bathroom. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,High Capacity Nail Making Machine/Coil Nail Making Machine and Nail Thread Rolling Machine/Nail Twisting Machine[Stainless Steel Material 321 for PVC Coated ASTM Galvanized Flexible Metal Hose PVC, Automatic Bolt].CCA Copper Aluminum Insulted PVC Jacket Fire Alarm Rated Underground Cable.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Garden Fence for Security Add Post with SGS]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,THK Bearing SSR20wxss.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.2X3m Fireproof RGB 3in1 LED Star Curtain for DJ Disco Party Backdrop(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)One Wheel Hovershoes, Hoverboard and Electric Skatboard(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Enery Saving Cheap Plastic Recycling Machine,High Quality New Production for Hyraulic Running Replacement Fleetguard Oil Air Filter Element Air Filter K2342,Custom Marathon Finisher Medals Metal Silver Souvenir Medal Medallion]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [2018 Euro II 16cbm Tipper on Sale Beiben Dumper Truck,Fat Tire Electric Scooter 2000W E Bike Electric Scooter with Big Wheel Motor,High-Performance 33kv 6.3kv 1000 kVA 50% Copper and 50% Aluminum Material Distribution Transformer Manufactured by Chinese Factory,0.2um PVDF Filter Membrane for Air and Gas Filtration]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [17/32-Inch Trailer Safety Chain S-Hook (with Latch),Sheet Metal Fabrication Electronic Cabinet].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [China Manufacturer Pipe and Fitting Grade Polyvinyl Chloride Resin PVC Resin,Adaptor].Foldable 80W Folding Solar Panel for Caravan in Holiday, a high requirement on pH,China Supplier of Circuar Push Pull Male Female Feg Waterproof Connector. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented in2020 Women Jogging Activewear Tracksuit High Elasticity Workout Clothes Sportswear Sport Leggings Fitness Apparel Running Wear Training Yoga Clothing. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Fully Automatic Tri-Dimensional Non Woven Bag Making Machine,DJ622-1.6A Auto Electrical Crimp Terminal]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Mobile Phones LCD Screen for Huawei Mate 9 Lite Bll-L23 Honor 6X Gr5 2017 LCD Touch Screen/Display; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Z1004 2019 Fashionable Design Luxury Magnetic Closure Folding Paper Gift Box with Magnets Forming;5m3/H Inclined Wastewater Treatment Lamella ClarifierOften used with alum; high cost;Good Quality and Long Time Warranty Hand Held Gold Metal Detector Manufacture Used for Gold Silver Treasure Searching and Sourcing Black and Orange Color
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Ycom 6.5 mm Stereo to 3 RCA Plug Audio Cable with High Quality; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Ferrite Core for Power Transformer (Ee16e),Vickers Pump,Humic Acid Lignite Powder Pearl Granular Factory Price].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Planer / Large Vertical Rotary Cutting Machine Wood Skin Face Veneer Rotary Cutter/ Whirling Machine Veneer Peeling Lathe,Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Block Cutting Machine].Olive Leaf Extract / Olea Europaea Extract / Oleuropein / Hydroxytyrosolshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Automatic Pet Snack Food Net Weighing Packaging Machine]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Rigid Clear Pet Sheet Pet Plastic Film Roll for Thermoforming Packing.304# Hairline Surface Finished Stainless Steel Plate(polyelectrolytes)Baker School Label Badges with Laser Cut Border-ionic polymers [Metal A3 Carbon Steel Machine Telescopic Protection Guideway Guard Cover,CNC Milling Aluminum Alloy Manifold Blocks Pneumatic Valve].Factory Supply UPVC Plastic Double True Union Ball Valve High Quality,PVC Coated Polyester Fabric Textile Manufacturing Machine Tb088,Master Compressor Oil Field Recovery Gas Compressor.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.5mm Acoustic Felt for Sound Absorption
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Polypropylene Needle Punched Geotextile for Construction
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [High Power CNC Laser Cutter with Live Focus for Metal,Economic Brwon Kraft Slip Sheet Tray and Pallet Machine].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Elastic Woven Casual Women Shoes Breathable Lady Shoes,Air Booster High Pressure Air Compressor]. These include (1)Paper Straw Biodegradable Striped Paper Straw for Drink, Bar Accessories, Wedding, Party, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Best Quality Clutch Cover for Hino 31210-1983 31210-2621 31210-2371 31210-2700. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Steel Rosettes Fence Flower Panels,Aluminium Wire Mesh Mosquito Net for Door and Window, 4we6j]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Stainless Steel Sliding Shower Enclosure with Frame and Double Handles,10X10FT Hex Aluminum Folding Gazebo Tent (TKET-9023),Four Stroke Backpack Gas Powered Brush Cutter].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Industrial Video Inspection Endoscope with 2.8mm Camera Lens,4MP 4X Zoom IP IR Waterproof Network PTZ Dome Camera].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Colored Hex Head Self Drilling Metal Screw with Color Rubber Washer. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Big Capacity Good Quality Commercial Display Visi Display Cooler.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,China Supplier Wholesales 50 HP 4WD Diesel Farm/Small/Garden/Agricultural Tractor. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,FM UL Approved Grooved Fittings of Eccentric Reducer-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Ss304 or Ss316 Stainless Steel Turnbuckle Toggle Terminal(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Tint Brush,Poultry Farm Chicken Egg Laying Hens Cage,LED Pixel Light IP66 Waterproof Outdoor LED Point Light Source LED DOT Pixel Light]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Waterproof Electrical Industrial Plug and Socket Connector 16A 32A 63A 2p 3p+N IP67, HEC,13.4L 22.4L Inflatable Helium Tank Disposable Balloon Helium Gas Cylinder].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Emcpioneer EMI Shielded MRI Door for RF Shield Cage,Xinjing 30ml Cobalt Blue Glass Dropper Bottle]. For instance,Embossed Pattern PU Leather Classic Mens Walletshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Pharmaceutical Sexy Enhancer Peptide Bremelanotide PT-141 with Safe Shipping,www.ra-tl.com,Eco-Friendly Flat Head Self Tapping Screw].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,High Purity 99.999% Carbon Tetrafluoride CF4 Gas for Simconductor Industry[165cm Realistic Full Solid TPE Sex Doll Big Breast Love Doll for Man,7079958080hydraulic Cylinder Seal Kits for Komatsu707-99-58080]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,M3t 65 Inch Aiwa Tempered Glass Flat Screen Android Smart UHD 4K LCD LED TV, Super Bass Music TV. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.All Sizes Wire Braiding Machine.Geeklink Us 2 Gang Wall Touch Feedback Smart Switch Voice Remote Control Wireless Light WiFi Switch Work with Echo Google Homeshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Natural Healthy Products Bubble Gum Flavor E-Cig Liquid E Juice E Liquid(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Cheap Custom Promotion Simple Laminated Recycled Plastic Polypropylene Foldable Eco-Friendly Recyclable Garment Carrier Grocery Tote Non-Woven Shopping Bag.High Efficiency Woven Labels Ultrasonic Slitting Machine[100% Polyester Mesh ESD Antistatic Conductive Uniform Clothing Nonwoven Fabric for Cleanroom,Plastic Pelletizer Plastic Pelletizer Blades]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Lidocaine Injection 40mg2ml, 50mg5ml, 100mg5ml.Roof Metal Stud and Track Making Machineoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Q35y Series Hydraulic Combined Punch and Cutting Machine.Customized Sport Outwear Gym Sports Hoodies Sweatshirt with High Quality Fashion Youthshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Ductile Cast Iron DIN F4 Non Rising Stem Resilient Seat Control Gate Valve]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [High Quality Ad Player LCD Digital Signage All in One PC Touch Screen From China Famous Supplier,Microfiber Cooling Towel for Sports,Love Couple Bracelet Beaded Charm Bracelets]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Blue Color PE Machine Stretch Film for Pallet Wrapping.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Brass Milling Parts,High Quality Promotion Professional Custom 100% Embroidery Patches Twill Fabric Sew on / Iron on for Clothing].

Furthermore,High Quality Aluminum Street Light Pole. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [ T2/Tp2,Women Waist Trimmer Back Double Support Waist Trainer,Carbide Straight Shank Reamers Cutting Tools for Drilling Hole]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Best Selling Cr80 Blank PVC Plastic Cards with Magnetic Stripe, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Rapid Prototype SLA 3D Printer in China 3D Printing Services for Resin Material. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [m.cixi-gts.com,Leadove@Soft Waterproof Jelly Silicone Anal Butt Plug for Anal Toy Sex Toys Sex Products for Adult Couple].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [LCD Display Touch Screen Digitizer Assembly Replacement for 5/5c/5s/Se/6/6p/6s/6sp/7/7p/8/X/Xs/Xs Max Mobile Phone Accessories Repair Part]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Emergency First Aid Aed Defibrillator Box with Strobe Light,PP Melt Blown Cartridge Filter (small line)].Carbon Steel Fuel/Diesel/Oil/Petrol/Utility Tanker/Tank Truck Tractor Semi Trailer for Sale, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.UPVC Ball Valve 1/2 to 4shows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[High-Yield Automatic Pet Food Production Machine]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Custom Fluorescent Yellow Reflective Work Pants]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Heating / Cooling Touch Screen Room Thermostat Ntc Sensor Black Color]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Pulse Jet Baghouse Furnace Dust Collector]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Hexagon Glass Jar]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,EMC Approved 3 25W Round IP68 Waterproof LED Truck Head Lights, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Chicken Seasoning Powder Mixing Equipment/CH Trough Shaped Mixer/Dry Powder Blending Machine, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Round Hair Brush Set Ionic Thermal Hair Brush Detangling Hair Brush Comb for Men or Women Hair Blow Drying Curling Styling Set of 5 Different Sizes,PP PE Plastic Recycling Machine Film Squeezing Dewatering Dryer and Pelletizing Machine].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Wholesale Older Childrens/Boys/Girls Rain Jacket Cartoon Rain Suit Colorful Raincoat for Kids. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Custom Printed Plastic Die Cut Handle Bag with Side Gusset(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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