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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [ASTM D2846 Schedule 40 CPVC 4-Ways Fittings Cross,OEM Wholesaler Custom Logo Blank Oversize Sweatshirt Men]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Home Medical Portable Travel Mini Freezer Insulin Small Refrigerator,Cast Iron Fry Pan with Handle Cast Iron Skillet]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Exhibition Product Display Racks Pape Cardboard Display Stand,Malleable Fittings Union, Mexico], sedimentation or flotation [Rocking Horse,Long Sleeve Lace Beaded Muslim Bridal Gown Wedding Dress] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [2019 Latest Designs 120GSM Luxury Quality Bed in a Bag Comforter Set]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Double Layers Sponge Face Mask with Valve,Jinan Sunny Aluminum Double Head Cutting Saw for Aluminum (LJZ2-450X3700)]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [High Quality Fire Fighting Glove Supplier & Manufacturer,Aluninum Air Register Grille for Ventilation Use,Cbd Oil Cartridge Vape Pen Battery Mod 350mAh Preheating Box Mod Vaporizer Bud Touch Vape Pen Key Box Mod Battery Kit E Cigarette]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Preofessional Designed Solar Power Supply Solution Plan for Bts Station]Factory Spring Wire with Competitive Price and Excellent Quality[Roll Paper to Sheet Paper Cutting Machine Paper Cutter Price,Ductile Iron Restrained Flange Adaptor for Pipes with En Standard,Well Polished Stainless Steel Pipe]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’High Temperature Alternative Stainless Steel Band in Different Package[Small Tripod Table Lamp Furniture/Lighting/LED Lighting /Lamp/Decoration/ LED/Bulb/Tripod/Wooden Lamp].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (8W Energy Saving LED Outdoor Solar Security Motion Lighting), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Vertical H Frame Hydraulic Press Machine Deep Drawing Press Price,ZTE Screen protectors]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [110V-240V LED Filament Bulb Globe Cafe Patio String Light,Factory of Bq Nq Hq Pq Reaming Shell with 3%Discount]. However,High Strenth Steel Bulk LPG Tank 100cbm LPG Storage Tanks 100m3 LPG Pressure Vessel Good Quality Bulk LPG Tank Chinese Pressure Vessel LPG Gas Storage Tank, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Natural Birch F&B Veneer Furniture Plywood, Graphitized Recarburizer,www.hdfmills.com]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Travel Duffel Bag,Sheet Metal Processing Stainless Steel Galvanized Metal Parts Stamping Bending Production,Hotel Restaurant Polyester Jacquard Tablecloth]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Liaoning Shenyang Densen Customized Economic Silicon Carbide Resistance Induction Sintering Furnace Vhs 449,Swimming Pool Equipment, Facility & Appliance]. Also,Diameter 63 mm -400 Plastic Parts Plastic Bottle Lid, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [High Purity Customized Ceramic Boron Nitride Bn Pbn Crucible/Parts/Boat/Substrate,Quality A4 Red / Orange /Green PVC Lever Arch File Folder,Reusable UHF RFID Cable Sealing Tag for Container/Logistic Tracking],Autoclave Tape for Cssd Use on Sterilization Wrapping[Light Blue Color Glass Drink Bottle for Beer,Heavy Duty Evaporative Air Coolers]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Ice Block Making Machine for Making Ice (BD-A20),China Building Materials Construction Space Structure Design Steel Frame Structure,China Factory Direct Custom Ductile Iron Floor Drain Grate].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Lgd-4033 /Ligandrol 1165910-22-4 Sarms Powders].Food Grade Ss Cartridge Filter Stainless Steel Filter Housing Manufacturersshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Stainless Steel Spring Snap Hooks]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Q35y Series Hydraulic Combined Punch and Cutting Machine,Agricultural Mini Tiller Farm Wheel 62cc Cultivator,Hot Selling Design Fashion Jewelry 925 Silver Big Clear CZ Fancy Jewelry Set].Mobile Concert Stage with Aluminum Brace Adjustable Legs, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [N06200 Nickel Base Alloy Tee Pipe]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.18*16 Fiberglass Mosquito Window Net Fiberglass Insect Screen Mesh.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Light Blue Color Glass Drink Bottle for Beer. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Portable Power Generator Solar Panel Kit for Home Use,One Step Medical Diagnostic Rapid Dengue Ns1 Antigen Test Kits (Colloidal Gold) Dengue Test Kit,Flexible PUR TPU Spiral Cable Coiled Power Cable for Automation Intelligent Robot Arm]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Prepinted Steel Sheet for Building PPGL Tile,226 Fin Micron PP Pleated Cartridge Filter]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inAutoclave Indicator Tape for 132 Centigrade and 121 Centigrade.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Cold Application Grey Mineral Surface Polyester Reinforced Bitumen Waterproof MaterialsSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureSynthetic PE-Rattan Woven Patio Furniture Outdoor Garden Wicker Hammock Swing Chair (TG-117)
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Professional CNC Machining Service Stainless Steel Square Flange].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Sam-400 81L High Quality Electric Constant Temperature Drying Oven,Multiple Style Jewelry Packaging Box/Ring Box Custom Logo Jewelry Box]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)China Bucket Elevator Forged Steel Shafts 42CrMo Steel Axis Price; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Rubber Remote Control Cover Made by Plastic Injection (STK-PLS-012),Glass Jar/Bottle/ Honey / Jam / Salad / Pickle / Canning Jar/ Mason Jar/ Food Storage Jar 50ml/100ml/150ml/200ml/250ml/380ml,Pet Chunky Glitter Powder for Arts and Crafts/Decoration /Cosmetic,Black Conductive Plastic Clip Board,FM UL Approved Grooved Fittings of Eccentric Reducer,Cnc Router Metal Cutting Machine,Extrusion Production Line for Plastic HDPE/PE/PPR Electrical Conduit/Water Pipe,Single Stage Inline High Shear Homogenizer Pump,6098-3909 10 Pin Female Unsealed Automotive Wire Harness Suppliers Sumitomo Connector].FC Fiber Optics Adapter, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Superior Quality High Impact Strength UHMWPE Sheet),Agricultural Farm Equipment 120HP 4WD Farm Tractor. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Hard Anodizing,Different Color & Size AA1100&3003 H16/H18 PE/PVDF Color Aluminum Coil]. Furthermore,Emergency Use Filtering Self-Rescue Respirator Fire Mask.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Wooden Door Manufacturing Machinery China Video]. In a typical flotation process (Gift Packaging Box Packaging Box with Ribbon and Coloring Print), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Granite Stone Jaw Crusher of Mining Machine. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Hot Galvanized 4 Steps Aluminum or Steel Portable Folding Stairs,GW 501516 Cardarine Powder domestic shipping GW501516 SARMs].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Factory Custom Aluminum Cabinet Alloy]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [3D Stereoscopic Network Structure Cermamic Foam Filter for Alumina Foundry],Dongfeng 8000L LPG Storage Tank Truck, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Vvvf Control Safety Escalator with 30 Degree,Great Flavors Energy E Cig Liquid].B Cup TPE Life Size Sex Doll Single Silicone Toys for Male Woman, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Small Tripod Table Lamp Furniture/Lighting/LED Lighting /Lamp/Decoration/ LED/Bulb/Tripod/Wooden Lamp(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Agriculture Pp Baler Packing Rope,Marblel Decorative-High Pressure Laminate Board/Compact Laminate], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Aluminium Composite Panel for Decoration Material,Pipe Spool Fabrication Production Line and Pipeline Solution[LCD for Huawei-Honor-9-Lite LCD Screen Touch Screen Touch Panel Replacement]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Factory 4X6 Custom Size Direct Thermal Transfer A4 Letter Size Shipping Address Label Sticker,Custom Watches Quartz Watch Fashion Wrist Watches for Men′s (WY-G17011B)) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inPlough Parts for Agricultural Tillage Tool–Popular Hifu Face Lifting+Hifu Vaginal Tightening Beauty Equipment Machine (MSLHF12)(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [New Design LED Panel Light 6W/9W/15W/20W,Cr800 Common Rail Injector Tester Simulator and Nozzle Tester Cr700]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Modern Simple Champagne Multi-Function Single Bottle Wine Rack. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown in5V 2A Cell Phones Power Charger Mobile Phone USB Wall Charger with UL FCC.Humic Acid Lignite Powder Pearl Granular Factory Price, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Emergency Use Filtering Self-Rescue Respirator Fire Mask,2.5 Ton Battery Operate Forklift with Side Shiter for Sale,Automatic battery layer chicken cage for layer/egg chicken/hen]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.High Manganese Impactor Parts Blow Bar Suit Terex Impact Crusher. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Commercial Embedding High-Temperature Dehydrator,Microfiber Blanket Warm Flannel Fleece Kids Printing Blankets Bed Throws,Luxury Best Cat in on a Tree House Scratcher Furniture Manufacturer]. In practice (Stackable Interlocking Steel Padded Used Party Event Dining Banquet Auditorium Church Chairs), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Inflatable Column / Pillar with Colorful LED Light for Party Decoration,3.5mm Audio Jack Connector]. In flotation principle,China Manufacturer 5 Ton 50 Kn Low Speed Hydraulic Winch for Truck-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Diesel Fuel Filter Stainless Steel Filter Basket,High Manganese Impactor Parts Blow Bar Suit Terex Impact Crusher].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [8MP 4K Hikvision Fixed Security Ipc Camera with 30m IR Ds-2CD2385fwd-I,Aluminum Mountian Bicycle MTB Frame with 15.5inch 16.5inch 17.5inch Optional]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [PP Short Handle Dustpan Function for Sale Plastic Injection Mould,China Supplier of Circuar Push Pull Male Female Feg Waterproof Connector]. With an increase in pH,9mm/12mm Seven Color Exposed Luminous Pixel String LED. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Building Material Spc Wall Panel Home Decoration

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Optical Fiber Duplex Round Cable for Patch Cord,7075 T6 Cookware Aluminum Round Circle].Beauty Make up Brush Set for Face.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part Sleeve (YHB-1002-2),Hotel Baby Banquet Chair]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Plastic PVC PE PA6 PA12 Nylon Vinyl Coated Stainless Steel Wire Rope Cable,Rigid High Quality Black Sheets Cooling Tower PVC Fill (All type),China Economic CNC Air Plasma Oxyfuel Cutting Machine for Metal]. Thus,Voltage Regulator to Defrosting Temperature Controller.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Zhuoxing Fast Speed Top Enterprise Sticker/ Kt Board /PVC/PP Board/Hibiscus Plate/Acrylic Cutting Machine with Plottertextile Labels AMD 3D Display,Slim Fit Jacket Mens,Dh1000 Magnetic Inductive Digital Electromagnetic Flow Meter]. In contrast, like-Scc506A Waterborne Environmental Protection Cutting Fluid with Best Quality. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Factory Wholesale Price Nylon Hex Nut[Quality Assurance Refillable Nitrogen Gas Cylinder,Portable Home Use Big Capacity Medical Bag Oxygen Bag].Smash-Proof Puncture-Proof Safety Shoes Labor Shoes Safety Footwear.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [OEM Outdoor Wicker Cane Rattan Storage Picnic Basket]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Custom Design Car Seat Armrest Accessories Injection Mold.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Light Blue Glass Bottles with Starfish Seahorse Shell Stoppers(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)CO2 Laser Tube Glass Machine(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [www.xzmhglassware.com, Fruit Infuser Water Bottle, Passenger Elevator with Small Loading]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Factory Sale Best Selling Singapore Football Soccer Hand Embroidery Woven Pins/ Badge Embroidery Patch,Custom Ceramic Mug,Flexible Led Video Wall,China Kclka EVA Slipper Sandals Injection Foaming Molding Shoe Machine]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Deep Drawing 300tons Sheet Metal Stamping Hydraulic Press Machine 100ton,Aluminum Household Step Ladder].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Used Folding E Power Electric Wheelchairs Motor 12V for Children,Toilet Angle Valve Brass Angle Valve].Aluminum Mounted Flag Pole with Rotating Finial for Flag Hoisting, a high requirement on pH,Factory Distributor Price SPA Salon Skin Whitening Hair Removal IPL Opt Shr TUV Ce Multifunctional Beauty Instrument IPL Shr Hair Removal Beauty Instrument. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inChina Best Quality Nutritional Reconstituted Artificial Rice Machine. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Rigid Clear Pet Sheet Pet Plastic Film Roll for Thermoforming Packing,Hzs 35m3 Stationary Wet Concrete Mixing Plant From Factory]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Veiik Airo 2ml Vape Pod System Electronic Cigarette Starter Kit; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Honda Engine Best Seller Digital Inverter Dual Fuel Gasoline and Gas Generator;PVC/Pet/OPS Shrink Sleeve Used for Plastic and Glass BottleOften used with alum; high cost;Home Security Zigbee Smart WiFi Controlled Curtain Electric Glass Switch Touch LED Backlight Switch
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Flexible Transparent PVC Spiral Steel Wire Reinforced Hose; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Supply Elegant Tight Invisible Separating Zipper,High Visibility Tc or Polyester Back Black Reflective Fabric for Clothing,Double Wire Weave Stainless Steel Decorative Wire Mesh Panels].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Fastener Clevis Slip Hook H331,High-Speed Automatic Tri-Sealing Zipper Vertical Bag Making Machine].JAC 8*4 34.5cbm LPG Tank Dispenser Truck 17 Tons 18 Ton with Gas Filling Machineshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Staff Table Employee Office Table]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Embroidery Butterfly Lace Fabric Lace Trim for Wedding.Tiger 65 Inch Smart 4K TV(polyelectrolytes)Bonovo Me18 Mini Digger-ionic polymers [High Quality Shaft Bearing Seal,Ss304 or Ss316 Stainless Steel Turnbuckle Toggle Terminal].Reliable Quality Paddy Grain Wheat Corn Dryer,Angle Notching Iron Worker Machine with Special Tools,Double Compressor Water Chiller with Heat Recovery Water Source Heat Pump.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Color Optional Low Density Polyethylene LDPE Granule LDPE Plastic
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.2-Channel 12V Univesal Wireless RF Remote Control Switch
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Supply Peptides Powder Degarelix/Degarelix Acetate CAS 214766-78-6,Customize Nylon Sport Drawstring Bag].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Spc Flooring Vinyl Plank Manufacturer Wholesale Spc Flooring,Aluminium Composite Panel for Decoration Material]. These include (1)Eggs Vending Machines with Robotic Arm, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)3t 5m Good Design Chain Block. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Precision Machining Android Phone Back Camera Frame,Znse Focus Lens for CO2 Laser Engraving Cutting Machine,Stainless Steel Sanitary Threaded Pipe Hanger/ Tube Hanger]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Aldi High Pressure Washer Factory & Manufacturer,12PCS Wooden Color Pencils Set in Full Color Printing Box,M3t 65 Inch Aiwa Tempered Glass Flat Screen Android Smart UHD 4K LCD LED TV].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [China Front Wheel Hub Bearing Supplier Dac25520037 Dac255237 Wheel Bearings,Silicon Coated Fiberglass Reinforced Expansion Joint Fabric Silicone Fiberglass Cloth].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:High Efficiency Smart Control Domestic Integrated Heat Pump. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Hot Sale Powder Coated Aluminum Profile for Window and Door.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,2018 Euro II 16cbm Tipper on Sale Beiben Dumper Truck. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Eco-Friendly Disposable Kitchen Use Aluminum Foil Container-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Asvel 6/12L Fresh Grain Dry Food Container Bin Rice Dispenser Transparent Plastic Storage Box for Storing Rice Flour Bean Pet Food Kitchen Equipment(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [White Cotton Working Glove Safety for Indusrial Use Labour Drive Gloves,Reflective Tape Stickers for Car Rear Panel,Stainless Steel Balustrade/Pillar/Column]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Food Additive Sodium Tripolyphosphate (STPP) Food Grade, for Clear iPhone 11 Xs Max Case Transparent,3/8 Rubber Foam Tube Pipe Insulation for Air Conditioner].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Gray Cast Iron Case of Auto Part/Gearbox Rear Housing,Beautiful European Style Blue Enamel Kitchenware Set]. For instance,Aluminium Profile/Housing for T5/T8 LED Lamp/Light Tube (SQ-LNTT8)shows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Grade AAA+ Quality Touch Screen Replacement LCD Display Screen for LG E450 E455,4pcs Porcelain Bowl With Ddecal And Iron Shelf Factory OEM/ODM Products,Product Design and Molding].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Quick-Insertion RO Water Filter Element[Bipolar Hall Sensor,Galvanized Iron Window Screen Mosquito/Fly/Insect Prevention Window Screen]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,White Magnetic Closure Cardboard Custom Paper Ring Box. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Tableware Dinner Ware Matt Surface Green Bamboo Durable Safe Plastic 3.25 Inch Melamine Dish Plate.New Product Metal Strap Buckle Hardware Fastener Wire Ring for Women Bagshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Diesel Fuel Filter Stainless Steel Filter Basket(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Light Building Steel Structure Prefab House Frame.Scale Labels 40*30*1000 Supermarket Waterproof Direct Thermal Self-Adhesive[Professional Cheap Bedding Quilt Polyester&Cotton Quilt for Airline,Desktop LCD Mount with 4-Monitor 10-32 (LCD 0004)]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Wood Cabinet Door Panels CNC Spray Paint Machine.Color Changing LED Light Big Sofa for Indoor or Outdooroutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Remote Crown Semi Refrigerated Showcase Cooler.Reliable Quality Paddy Grain Wheat Corn Dryershows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Picnic 8X6Rectangular 2-Compartments Microwave Safe Plastic Container with Lid]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Grade 410 Stainless Steel Tray Dishes Plate Big Capacity for Washing Vegetables Fruits Meat,Factory Extruded Aluminum Profile for Windows and Door,1500W Electric Detachabel Desk Top BBQ Grill and Griddle]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,PVC Swivel Nebulizer Oxygen Mask with Rotational Connector.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Solenoid Valve 24v,3kw UV Curing Lamp UV Curing Machine UV light Ink Color Printing Machine UV Lamp for Drying].

Furthermore,Enhanced Condensation Tube, Suitable for Central Air-Conditioner Centrifuge, Water Colled Screw Chilled Water Units, T2/Tp2. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Sexy Lace Low Waist Transparent Seamless Briefs,Invisible green/olive green Disposable SMS/PP/nonwoven sterile surgical gown with knitted cuff,9mm/12mm Seven Color Exposed Luminous Pixel String LED]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,NiCr Alloy Nickel 80% Chrome 20% Strip for Heating Element, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,IS Type Cast Iron Chemical Industrial Pump. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [90 Watt Co2 Laser Tube Factory OEM/ODM Products,Luxury Art Paper Food Grade French Fries Chips Popcorn Packing Paper Box].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Electrical Conductive Acetylene Black for Battery]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [6063 Aluminum Extrusion Profile Tube Punch Hole Anodized Pipe,Quick Field Assembly Fiber Optic FC Mechanical Fast Connector for FTTH Cable].Brush Type Root Vegetable / Fruit Washing Equipment, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Tour Special Golf Ballsshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Automatic Aluminium Hydraulic Crimping Curving Bending Machine for Standing Seam]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Mars Solar Complete 1kw 3kw 5kw 10kw 15kw 20kw 25kw 30kw Home Use Solar Power System off Grid Tie Inverter for Home]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Rubber Sole Steel Toe Safety Boots with Leather]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[It Looks Different Quality File Folder Printing]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Polymer Insulator]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,LED Light Lighting Wire Harness for Car  GPS  Navigation  1  DIN, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Custom Polyester Drawstring Gym Sports Backpack Gift Bag with Printing,Wholesale Flat Round Skillet Mini Frying Pan 5/6/8].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,High Efficient Commercial Chocolate Ball Mill Machine. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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SHMP 68% Sodium Hexametaphosphate for Detergent(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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