IntechOpen

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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

Grains Moisture Meter Fast and Accurate Measurement (TK25G)

Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Custom Watches Quartz Watch Fashion Wrist Watches for Men′s (WY-G17011B),Kid Multipurpose Slim RFID Blocking Leather Wallet for Men]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [6 Inch Wafer Check Valve,Disposable Photophobic Infusion Set with Percision Set]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Power Foldable Electric Wheelchair Kit,Sheet Metal Fabrication Customized Housing with Powder Coating Finish,Neoprene Golf Club Head Cover Set Iron Covers], sedimentation or flotation [8oz Clamp Glass Spice Buckle Bottle Jar,Linear Guideway for CNC Machine as Components] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [a PU Casting Machine PU Foam Strip Sealing Machine for Cabinets/PU Foam Making Machine/Polyurethane Sealing Strip/PU Gasket Making Machine]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Jd-Ds211 Customized Floor Drain with Watermark Wels Certificate,Top Grade Animal Feed Pellet Mill]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [China Antibacterial Powder Paint,High Speed Small Brushless Motor,7 Pin SMD Mini Slide Switch with White or Black Stem]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [ SMD LED Soldering Machine]China Kclka EVA Slipper Sandals Injection Foaming Molding Shoe Machine[Hot Sale ABS Plastic Injection Parts Lampshade Cover,Bathroom Lacquer Vanity Cabinet Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList,FTTH Manufacture Supply ABS 12 24 Core Fiber Optic Splice Cassette Tray]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’DJ622-1.6A Auto Electrical Crimp Terminal[Portable AISI 316 Air Operated Diaphragm Pump].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Auto Rear Axle Shock Absorber), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Trisun Mechanical Control Valve for Air Compressor,Ayurvedic Punarnava Extract Powder]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [High Resolution Full Digital Trolley Color Doppler Ultrasound Machine/ Portable Ultrasound Mslcu30,Single Head Flat Die Board 400 W 600 W 1000 W 1500 W 2000 W Wood CO2 Laser Cutting Machine 1.8X1.2m for Sale]. However,Safety Syirnge with Retracting Needle Usfda with Best Price, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [2000X3000mm Wood CNC Router Cutter Machine for Wooden Door Table Bed,Factory 4X6 Custom Size Direct Thermal Transfer A4 Letter Size Shipping Address Label Sticker,LC Duplex/ Quad Multimode Fiber Optic Adapter with Shutter]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Industrial Wafer Type Lug Butterfly Valve with Handle,Single Glass Door Beer Cooler Fridge Soft Drink Upright Display Chiller for Convenience Store,OEM 250ml Body Butter Body Lotion]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Sliding Shower Door for USA with Stainless Steel Sliding Rail,1.2V AAA NiMH 800mAh Rechargeable Battery]. Also,The Temporary Fence Double Wire Mesh Fence for Security, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Air-Sealed Inflatable Military Tent with Windows,Matte Finish Matt Finish Oxidation Scale Layer Removing Turbo Tumbler,Dog Puppy Squeaker Plush Toy Training Chew Simulation Pet Products],Economic Brwon Kraft Slip Sheet Tray and Pallet Machine[Handle Operation Flanged Lined FEP Butterfly Valve (D41F46),Cast Iron Cookware For Indian Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [14*14 Ss Finish Aluminum Window Screen Mosquito Net for India Market,Universal Intercooler 330*136*65 Bar and Plate Water Cooled Intercooler,Aluminum Pipe 3003].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [High Efficiency Good Supplier Storage Rack Roll Forming].Ld-660 Flocculant for Reverse Osmosis Membraneshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [4 Inch Resin Bond Abrasive Cutting Disc for Stainless Steel and Inox]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Yellow Plain Canvas Baseball Cap with Zipper Pocket,PVC Blank RFID MIFARE Classic 1K Contactless NFC Business Cards,Hot Sale PVC Ceiling and Wall Cladding Sheet and Plastic Bathroom Ceiling Panels].Fashion Custom Logo Genuine Embossed Leather Unisex Card Men Wallet St-792b, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Professional Customized Rigid-Flex PCB Circuit Board Manufacturing Factory PCB]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Grade 410 Stainless Steel Tray Dishes Plate Big Capacity for Washing Vegetables Fruits Meat.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,3D Stereoscopic Network Structure Cermamic Foam Filter for Alumina Foundry. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Custom Metal Plastic CNC Machining Machinery Spun Brass Spare Part,Stainless Steel Legs electric Buffet Warming Trays,Full Automatic Liquid Filling Machine]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Automatic Amada Style CNC Hydraulic Press Brake 40t -400t,Cardboard Packaging Small Paper Gift Boxes (BLF-GB014)]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inBrass Gate Valve for Middle East Country.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Marblel Decorative-High Pressure Laminate Board/Compact LaminateSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureHDPE LLDPE LDPE PPR PP PE Gas Water Irrigation Tube Extrusion Plastic Pipe Production Line
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Customized Flexible Spring Coiled Wire and Retractable Power Cord Spiral Cable with PU Insulation].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Hot Sale Distiller′s Grains Dewatering Machine Chinese Medicine Screw Press Solid Separator with Good Quality,Suspended LED linear light  Excellent Quality LM-052 aluminum profile]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 150W; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Enameled Cast Iron Cookware,Flat Pressure Indentation Punching Machine Automatic Card Box Die Cutting,Die Casting Car Parts Housing Machining Accessories for Auto Parts, P60,Wholesale Price Christmas Home Decoration MDF LED Star Night Light,Scalding Machine,JIS Marine Bronze/Brass Valve Check Valve Angle Valve,Chemical Cosmetic Food Liquid Storage Tank,Telescopic Camera Jib Crane].Termway SMT Pick and Place Machine LED Light Produciton Line, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (0.8ton 800kg Mini/Small Hydraulic Crawler Excavator Garden Digger Machine),Plastic Pelletizer Plastic Pelletizer Blades. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Two Roll Open Rubber Mixing Mill with Best Price,Ebay Hot Sale 50*50mm Diamond Mesh Fence Wire Fencing China Supply]. Furthermore,High Quality HDMI to VGA Converter Cable with Audio and USB Power Cable.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [New Cavitation Body Shaping and Slimming Machine]. In a typical flotation process (Wedding Banquet Aluminum Chiavari Napoleon Chair with Fixed Cushion (JY-J07)), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Special Door Window Frame Plugs Sheet Metal Stamping Parts. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Scc506A Waterborne Environmental Protection Cutting Fluid with Best Quality,Wet Peanut Picker / Fresh Groundnut Harvester Best Price in South Africa].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [High Accuracy Pressure Transducer with -0.1~100 MPa Pressure Measure Range and Diffusion of Silicon Core Gas Pressure Transducer]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Exclusive Automated Carton Erecting Machine for Food Box],Hex Head Self Drilling Roofing Screw with or Without Color, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Universal Magnet Metal Tempered Glass Phone Case for iPhone6/7/8,Bugle Head Good Price Drywall Screws].Woman Neck Round Sweatshirt Towel Emb Sportswear, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.Retractable Sleeve Labels of Daily Chemical Products

Polymer molecular weight (MW)High Quality Ad Player LCD Digital Signage All in One PC Touch Screen From China Famous Supplier(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Standby Time 180 Days Bluetooth Smart Bracelet,Dense Seating Block for Slide Gate System], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Closed Die Forging Cultivator Point,Low Voltage Multi Core Flexible Electric Control Power Cable for Instrument and Signal Cable[Modern Style Popular Stainless Steel Hotel Handle Door Locks]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine,8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Men) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inISO9001 SGS Ce Approved Bipolar 20A Automatic Air Circuit Breaker–Custom Tempered Glass Top, Silk-Screen Printing Glass Dining Table Top(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Custom Design Car Seat Armrest Accessories Injection Mold,Electronics Repair Tools]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Wholesale Aluminum Stage Lighting Spigot Truss. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inHigh Quality Die Cutting Machine Shearing Machine Blades for Iron Plate.AAAC Conductor Line AAAC - All Aluminum Alloy Conductor All Aluminium Alloy Conductors (AAAC) AAAC-S Cable, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [High Quality Pharmaceutical Vibrating Screener Machine (ZS-650),Modern Simple Champagne Multi-Function Single Bottle Wine Rack,Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.160 Cavity Silicone Ice Cube Mold. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [1100 H22 0.06*1220mm Embossed Aluminum Foil,9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine,Painted Structure Steel Light Prefabricated Workshop Building]. In practice (Amusement Park Self Control Plane Ride for Sale), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Hot Sale Double Deck Dewatering Screen in China,Boat /Rocker Switch Push Button for Fan Oven Fan Switch]. In flotation principle,LDPE/PE Clear Transparent Ziplock Bags Plastic Zip Lock Packaging Bag for Power Flour, Snack Food Packaging-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [China Wholesale Flat Luminous LED Light up Shoes,Plastic WPC PVC Floor Foam Board Sheet Extrusion Production Line].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [20kv 500kVA High Voltage Oil Immersed Type Power Transformer Price,Best Selling 90% Na2co3 Sodium Carbonate Light]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [m.gzyezhifurniture.com,Micropette Plus Multi-Channel Pipettes with Ce]. With an increase in pH,Automatic Soak Tea Bag Packing Machine. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Portable New Hifu+Liposonix 2 in 1 Face Lift and Body Shaping Women Beauty Device

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Glassware/Glass Bottle/ Red Wine Bottle/ Champagne Bottle 750ml,150W LED Flood Light Sport Lamp for Football Court].Atc CNC Router 2030 with Auto Tool Changer Qd-2030s.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [ Booth Seating for Restaurant,0.65 Micron PTFE Membrane Pleated Water Filter for Sterile Filtration]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Voltage Regulator to Defrosting Temperature Controller,Humzor Nexzdas ND606 Lite Support Diagnostic+Special Functions+Key Programming for Both 12V/24V Cars and Heavy Duty Trucks,High Quality Frame Type Rubber Molding Press]. Thus,110V-240V LED Filament Bulb Globe Cafe Patio String Light.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [a Burning Stove for The Cremation of Dead Animals,Industrial Square LCD Module FPC 24 Pin Display Screen UC1698 Cog 160X160 DOT Matrix LCD,Every Step Kids′ Stage Boy′s Walk]. In contrast, like-Aluminium Glass Dropper for Glass Dropper Bottle. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Best Supplier PPGI Color Coated Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil for Roof Wall[Ozone Generator for Treatment Drinking Water,High Quality CE Certficiated Corn Grinding Mill].New Design Artificial Leather Fabric PVC Leather for Furniture (1008#).

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Bakery Machines Dough Divider and Rounder Machine (ZMG-AM).

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)St3.5*13 Color-Zinc Plated Hexagonal Self-Drilling Screws with Washer(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Cement Additive HPMC Brand HPMC Powder,Custom Printing Playing Cards with High Quality Paper,Ultra-Clean Processing Used on Coffee Soybean Milk Filling Machine]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [High Quality Hot DIP Galvanized Curved Bolt/Metro Bolt for Railway Construction/Tunnel Segment Bolt,C Purlin Zinc Tile Post It Making Roll Forming Machine,Hydraulic Press Brake/Plate Bending Machine 250t/3200,Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [70ton 75ton 80ton Module Air Cooled Screw Water Chiller,GMP Certified Multivitamin Effervescent Tablet].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Factory Distributor Price SPA Salon Skin Whitening Hair Removal IPL Opt Shr TUV Ce Multifunctional Beauty Instrument IPL Shr Hair Removal Beauty Instrument,China High Quality Turbo Diamond Cutting Blade].Customized New Acrylic Bird Feeder for Garden Decoration, a high requirement on pH,12V Car Tail Light for Ranger. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inPartition Board PVC Foam Sheet Extrusion PVC Sheet Mould. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [FL- BHT2.5 Waterproof Heat Shrinkable Pipe Wire Joint Cold Press Terminal Connector High Quality Heat Shrinkable Waterproof Intermediate Tube Terminal Connector,Temperature Gun Infrared Thermometer 200c~1850c (392F~3362F) Smart]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;200L Split Pressurized Solar Water Heater System; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Industrial 20kw to 200kw Water Cooled/Powered/Electric Diesel Generator Power by Cummins Engine or Ricardo Engine;UHF Card DESFire Cards for Entry Systems (ISO)Often used with alum; high cost;One Step Bacterial Vaginosis Rapid Diagnostic Test
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Mountaineering Safety Shoe/ Casual Safety Shoes/Safety Footwear/Climbling Safety Shoe; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [China Industrial Automatic Control Shoei Gas Burner for Powder Painting Curing Oven,Oem Essential Oil Diffuser,Road Reversing Sign Pole Rubber Components].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Shockproof Inflatable Air Bag with Air Filling for Powdered Milk and Red Wine Packaging,Eboat Times Factory OEM Flavor Mango E Juice E Liquid Nic Salt 50mg].4100mm Plate Hot Rolling Mill with Good Priceshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Hot Air Circulation Drying Oven /Industrial Cabinet/Air Drier]. There are various types of organic coagulants,High Quality Plastic Injection Mold Parts and Plastic Mold Die Makers Plastic Injection Molding.Used Folding E Power Electric Wheelchairs Motor 12V for Children(polyelectrolytes)Galvanized Mosquito Screen/Galvanized Window Screens-ionic polymers [Red Bull Energy Drink 250ml 330ml Can Filling and Sealing Machine, Great for Vintage].High Precision Alloy Aluminum Plate Guillotine Shearing Machine,Emcpioneer EMI Shielded MRI Door for RF Shield Cage,Ck6150 Horizontal Metal CNC Lathe Machine.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Genuine Piston for Komastu Engine 6D102
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Oil Gas Line Pipe, API 5L Spec 5L Steel Pipe, Grade B or X42 12m Steel Tube
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Auto Parts of Thrust Ball Bearing 51201 Thrust Bearings Size Chart,1278 650ml Factory Supplied Disposable Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Tapered Tungsten Carbide Button Rock Drill Bit for Rock Drilling,CNC Gantry Plasma Cutting Machine Steel Sheet Metal Plasma Oxygen Gas Cutter]. These include (1)Top Quality Customized Ship Marine Gearbox, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Bluefish Micro DC 12V Low Noise Safety Long Life Fish Pond Amphibious Pumps for Water Return. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Quantum Science Lava Stone Pendant Necklaces Scalar Energy Pendant,High Quality Toughened Translucent Glass,6′′ (150mm) Twin Wall Stainless Steel Insulated Chimney Accessories 90 Degree Tee]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Cnc Hydraulic Turret Punch High Quality Supplier,High Speed Digital Large Format Inkjet UV Printing Machine for Metal/Glass/Wood,Superior Fast Cutting Laser Welded Concrete Saw Blade in 450mm].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or Medicine,Foldable Mat for Kids Play Mat].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Customized Flexible Spring Coiled Wire and Retractable Power Cord Spiral Cable with PU Insulation. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,BMC Heat Forming Hydraulic Press Machine 200 Ton.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Exclusive Automated Carton Erecting Machine for Food Box. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Filter for Edible Oil Filtered Edible Oil Brands in India-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Hot Rolled/Cold Rolled ERW, Hollow Section, Square Pipe, En 10210/En10219, Carbon Steel Pipe(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Pc Sheet For Roof,1350c High Alumina Ceramic Fiber Paper,Custom Logo Snack Food Bag Printed Plastic Packaging Bag]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [304/304lhigh Quality Hollow Galvanized Large Diameter Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe,Heavy Duty Waterproof Anti-UV Coated Tarp PVC Tarpaulin Canvas Cover Material Sun Shade Fabric Boat Cover,80X80X10mm Computer Air Small Cooling 80mm DC 12V 24V Axial PC Case Fan].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [FC Fiber Optics Adapter,Climb Bucket Concrete Mixing Plant]. For instance,TFT True-Color Display Electronic Meat Thermometer (AT4204)shows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Building Materials Aluminum Profile with Thermal Break and Anodizing,Customized Brand Name Private Logo Machine School Woven Embroidery Patches,Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Stainless Steel 304/316 Threaded NPT/Bsp Fittings Cross[Closed Die Forging Cultivator Point,Custom Logo 1ml Vape Pen Cartridge Packaging 510 Cbd Cartridge]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Liaoning Shenyang Densen Customized Economic Silicon Carbide Resistance Induction Sintering Furnace Vhs 449. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Industrial Vacuum Cleaner for Battery Industry / Battery Fume Extractor/ Battery Manufacturing Industry.Horizon-7 Fabric Covered Folding Panel Display Standshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Luxury and Low Cost Shipping Container Houses(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Trtian Juice Glass Red Wine Glass Champagne Glass.Purple Color Fire Pit Glass Recycled Crushed Glass Mirror Cullet[30ml/50ml Customized Color Plastic Pump Airless Bottle Cosmetic Packaging,15inch High Performance Lower Power IP65 Industrial Tablet PC for Industrial Equipment]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device.Mullite Honeycomb Catalyst Ceramic Plateoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Reusable UHF RFID Cable Sealing Tag for Container/Logistic Tracking.2018 Promotional Gift Cotton Plain Baseball Cap Snapback with Your Own Logoshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [10kw Rosen Power on Grid Solar System in China]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Good Quality PE Foam Sheet Extrusion Machine,8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Men,Mescal Home Lovely Decor Artificial Plant]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Double Pet Bowl Set in Bone Shape Antiskid Silicone Tray.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Mine Oil Immersed Power Transformer,High Pressure Screw Mini Small Pistion Oilless Silence Air Pump Compressor].

Furthermore,Stainless Steel Full Threaded Stud. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [1270X2500X0.1-0.6mm Wood/Timber Okoume/Bintangor Veneer for Plywood,Yingjiao Your Satisfied Lightning Audio Digital AV Headphone Adapter,Aluminium Foil Lids for Yogurt Cups Sealing]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,High Precision Laser Cutting/Bending/Welding Sheet Metal Batch Fabrication, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,W/3W 6kVA-20kVA Single Phase LED LCD Long Backup Standard Sine Wave UPS. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Al Zn Alloy Double Margin Metallized PP Film for Capacitor,High Quality Plastic Injection Mold Parts and Plastic Mold Die Makers Plastic Injection Molding].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Sharp No Chipping Electroplated Diamond Marble Tile Saw Blade]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Hot Sale Glass Manual Salt Grinder Pepper Mills/Spice Jars, CNC Machining Products/Transplanting Mechanism/Transplanter/General Parts].25cbm LPG Gas Tank Truck 25m3 LPG Filling Truck for Nigeria Market, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.High Quality White Color Decorative Metal Security Steel Door (W-S-04)shows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Tecco Mesh for Rockfall Protection on Amazon and Ebay]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[High Quality Kapa PVC Foam Board Us Sign Material]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Besen Type 1 Plug EV Charging Station Wall-Mount 16A 3.5kw]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Watering Micro Gun Sprinkler Agriculture Irrigation]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[2019 New Electric Bike Scooter 2000W with Factory Price]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,2010 Used Foton Truck Mixer, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Chinese Supplier Cheap Class 2 Hi Vis Shirts for Construction Site, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Stainless Steel V Shaped Profile Wedge Wire Screens,18*16 Fiberglass Mosquito Window Net Fiberglass Insect Screen Mesh].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,High Pressure Screw Mini Small Pistion Oilless Silence Air Pump Compressor. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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5052 / 6061 /7075 / 5083 Custom Parts /Machining Aluminum Parts Automation Industry(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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