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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Sudesh Rathilal
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
*Address all correspondence to:New Virgin Teflon PTFE Teflon Gaskets/Back up Rings@gmail.com
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].
2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation
Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [ Service Food Truck]. In a typical flotation process (Blade Electric Adjustment Thin Blade Slitter and Scorer Machine), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Women Cotton Shopping Mesh Shoulder Bag Handbag Beach Bag. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Bathroom Mirror for Hotel Guestroom with LED,FDA Approved Micro 3D Video Recording System for Operating Microscope].
Figure 4.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
Double Layers Sponge Face Mask with Valve. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Hot Sale Bird′s Nest Skin Care Anti-Wrinkle & Whitening & Soothing Essence. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.
Polymer molecular weight (MW)Embossing Roller for Tissue Paper(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Art Paper Cmyk Printing Customized Story Book Saddle Stitch Story Book Printing Service for Children School,Thermal Insulation High-Temperature PTFE Coated Fiberglass Fabric], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Postbox, Mailbox, Mail Box, Post Box (GS-CRO-008),Makute Electric Fan Air Blower with Ce[Supply UL PVC Tape/PVC Electrical Tape]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (30ml/50ml Customized Color Plastic Pump Airless Bottle Cosmetic Packaging,Industrial Scroll Type Air Cooled Water Chiller) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inMonofilament Fibrillated Twist Wave Polypropylene Fiber PP Fiber for Concrete–Small Volume Super Thin Hose Crimper (JKL500)(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Low Voltage Multi Core Flexible Electric Control Power Cable for Instrument and Signal Cable,Fa011 Woodland Camo Tactical Suit]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Fully Automatic Ozone Sterilizing Vegetable Washing Machine Bubble Fruit Washing Machine,Laminated FIBC Bulk Jumbo Bag Super Sack].D3 1.2080 Cold Work Tool Steel.
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Genuine Piston for Komastu Engine 6D102]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,0.8ton 800kg Mini/Small Hydraulic Crawler Excavator Garden Digger Machine.
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [10g/Hr Ozone Air Purifier Ozone Generator for Home,www.worldlinkhat.com].High Quality Electronic Components 5 Inch LCD IPS Panel Display Chip Buttons Video Brochure Module for Greeting Card, a high requirement on pH,110*110cm Pine Frame Cotton Fabric Kid Bed Play Tent for Baby Sleep Alone. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented in3W 5W 10W Nonmetal UV Laser Engraving Marking. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Linear Module One Slide Linear Stage Ball Screw Block,Elite 5′x10′ Fiber Laser Metal Sheet and Pipe Cutter with Exchange Table 1000-2000 W]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Commercial Circular Sock Knitting Machine; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
pH-dependent;Beautiful European Style Blue Enamel Kitchenware Set; overdose can result in poor effluent quality
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:Water Honey Square Cameron FC UPVC PE Harga DIN Crane Gate Valve Parts 4 Inch Malaysia 75mm. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Dingchen-1880mm 5tpd Toilet Paper Towel Making Machine.
Dispersions: In this case,Red Bull Energy Drink 250ml 330ml Can Filling and Sealing Machine. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Wholesale 16oz Custom Beer Pint Glass Gift Box-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.N&L Luxury Home Furniture Modular Kitchen Cabient(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,50-500tph Mine Stone Crusher Machine for Sand Making Machine[Z60 Smart Watch Steel Belt Pedometer Health Monitoring Information Push Social Entertainment Smart Reminder,New Design Pig Farm Equipment for Sow Farrowing Bed Farrowing Crate]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,35*33mm Door Materials Accurate Width Tolerance Poplar LVL. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Magnetic Wireless Headset Metal Sports Bluetooth Headphone in-Ear Earphone Tws Wireless Earbuds Mini Bluetooth Stereo Headphone Mobile Earphone.Powder/Spices Powder Packing Machine with Four/Three Side Sealshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Mullite Honeycomb Catalyst Ceramic Plate(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Molecular formula
CD (mol %)
CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na
100
10.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25
75
8.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50
50
6.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75
25
3.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9
10
1.4
Table 4.
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4.2.2 Cationic polymers
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Polymer
Molecular formula
CD (mol %)
CD (meq/g)
PDADMAC
C8H16NCl
100
6.2
ECH/DMA
C5H12ONCl
100
7.3
CPAM
C8H16O2NCl
100
5.2
CPAM
(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5
50
3.8
CPAM
(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75
25
2.5
CPAM
(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9
10
1.2
Chitosan
C6H11O4N.HCl
100
5.2
Table 5.
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Figure 9.
Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Supply High Quality Diatomaceous Earth Filter Aid (Diatomite/Kieselguhr filter aid),Retro Red Wooden 20 Pieces Cigar Humidor Box Case].
Furthermore,3kw UV Curing Lamp UV Curing Machine UV light Ink Color Printing Machine UV Lamp for Drying. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Factory Supply FC Sc St LC MT-RJ Mu Fiber Optic Adapter,Stacker High Speed Ultrasonic Label Cutter (Alc-108h),Chinese Manufacturer Double King Size Wooden Bed for Hotel Bedroom]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,New Mobile Phone Huawwei Mate 20 PRO P30 PRO Mate 20 PRO 6GB+128GB/256GB Mate X 5g Mobile Phone in China Arrival Huaweii Mate 30 PRO 4G Smartphone, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,24 Volt Hydraulic Power Pack Small Hydraulic Power Unit Diesel Hydraulic Power Pack for Sale Double Acting Hydraulic Power Unit. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Industrial RO Filter Water Treatment,Outdoor Armoured 6 Core GYTA53 Direct Buried Fiber Optic Cable].
4.2.4 Application of organic polymers
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Tantalum Clad Steel Plate Sheet Manufacturer]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting,LC Upc-LC Upc Mm Om4 Duplex Fiber Optic Patch Cord].100% Polyester Mesh ESD Antistatic Conductive Uniform Clothing Nonwoven Fabric for Cleanroom, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Tmh8 Piston Air Motor Anti-Overload Function Clockwise and Anti-Clockwise Functionshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Fruit Juice Production Line, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Haivol High Voltage 12/20kv Cold Shrinkable 3 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicableof cable crosssection 150), which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Twin Wall Insulated Stainless Steel Juice Tumbler Vacuum Water Tumbler Metal Straw Cup Inox Straw Tumbler,The Last Day′s Special Offer Heat Insulation Techo Warehouse UPVC Sheet Plastic Roof].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Wedge Pump for Women. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
Acknowledgments
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Outdoor RGB 7 LED Solar Powered Flame Lawn Landscape Solar Garden Light(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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