IntechOpen

Olive Leaf Extract / Olea Europaea Extract / Oleuropein / Hydroxytyrosol-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

Manufacture Supply Low Price Agar Agar>4 in 1 Pole Chain Saw Hedge Trimmer Brush Cutter>Synthetic PE-Rattan Woven Patio Furniture Outdoor Garden Wicker Hammock Swing Chair (TG-117)

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Material Winding Frame Bending Machine (CLW24S-16),Vh-8 Pharmaceutical Manufacturing Mixer Machine for Mixing Dry Powder]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Foot Rest Ottoman,Hospital Medical Portable Electric Syringe Pump]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Baker School Label Badges with Laser Cut Border,Wholesale Custom Cheap Colored T-Shirts Corrugated Packaging Box,OEM/ODM Factory 600cwp Lead Free Brass Ball Valve with Drain C Xc], sedimentation or flotation [Car Signage,Electric Heating & Steam Heating Stainless Steel Reactor] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Shr/IPL Laser for Hair Removal Skin Rejuvenation]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Commercial 5 Years Warranty IP65 40W LED Beam Linear Light Aluminum Suspended,Fire Resistance Reflective Flame Retardant Fabric]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Precision Slant Bed CNC Lathe Machine Kdck-20A,Affordable Price Easy Installed Security Fencing for Sale (XMR192),LED Police Emergency Multi-Function Safety Hammer Tool Flashlight 807e]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [All Kinds Bulk Materials Screening Machine Various Vibrating Screen]Fengdeng New Style Cosmetic Bags Office Stationery Canvas Pencil Case[Professional Small Packaging Boxes Design,Sublimation Hard Plastic Phone Case,Cheap Shoe Paper Box Packing Manufacturer]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Powerful Output High Efficient Car Power Inverter 600W[Price of Aluminum Sheet Coil/Aluminum Strip].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Cotton Fabric Ep Nylon Pattern Oil Resistant Conveyor Belt), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [China Manufacturer 5 Ton 50 Kn Low Speed Hydraulic Winch for Truck,Optimized Processing Turquoise Bead Necklace with Donuts Pendant]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Most Fashionable and High Quality Comfortable Single Seater Office Chair with Solid Chromed Castors,Hot Sale Engine Oil Bt-18 Neat Punching and Drawing Oil]. However,Food Grade 40ml 100ml Pudding Glass Bottle Mini Milk Bottle with Cork or Cap, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [ 4110001007158 for Deutz (dalian) Engine Bf6m1013ecp,Thread Sealing Tape Double Face Tissue Tape,Stainless Steel]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Sw-Cj-1fd Vertical Air Supply Filter HEPA Clean Bench,Chinese Teak Wood Hotel Guess Double Room Furniture Apartment with Furniture Sofa,Cement Powder Wheat Flour Silo Bulk Cement Tank Semi Trailer (05)]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Light Weight Foldable Plastic Platform Hand Trolley pH1010,Sun Lounger Outdoor]. Also,Water Based Bentonite Rheology Modifier Rheological Additive, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Set of 3 White Washed Wooden Square Storage Containers with Corner Galvanized Accents,PVC Synthetic Leather / PVC Sofa Leather,High Efficiency Smart Control Domestic Integrated Heat Pump],Big Steel Structure Prefab Building with Crane as Workshop/Factory/Warehouse[Smart TV 55 Inch Kiosk Digital Advertising 1080P Indoor LED Totem Standing Digital Signage,EVA Sandals Injection Moulding Slipper Sole Shoe Machine with Servo]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Hospital Bed Electric Linear Actuator 12VDC 100mm Stroke,Supply Colored Viton NBR Silicone Auto Rubber O Ring,Water Filtration Double Layer Hydrophilic PVDF Pleated Filter Cartridge for Sterile Apis].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [ 1300mm].Plastic Water Stand Pelletizing Lineshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [High Quality Crawler Excavator Track Bolt 1543231220]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Soya Vegetable Meat Making Machine,Premium OEM/ODM Vape Liquids for Pods Pen,Stainless Steel Material 321 for PVC Coated ASTM Galvanized Flexible Metal Hose PVC].Watering Micro Gun Sprinkler Agriculture Irrigation, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [pvcceilings.com]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Hot Sale Ladies Handbags Fashion Coin Purse Leather Wallet with Flower Printing.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,SLS 3D Printing ABS Nylon Prototyping Service Machining 3D. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [ Automatic Bolt,Garden Fence for Security Add Post with SGS,High Quality New Production for Hyraulic Running Replacement Fleetguard Oil Air Filter Element Air Filter K2342]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Custom Marathon Finisher Medals Metal Silver Souvenir Medal Medallion,HE series Supplier & Factory]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown in2018 Euro II 16cbm Tipper on Sale Beiben Dumper Truck.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
High Power CNC Laser Cutter with Live Focus for MetalSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureNew Spinning Rod Bag Reel Bag Fishing Bag
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Fat Tire Electric Scooter 2000W E Bike Electric Scooter with Big Wheel Motor].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [0.2um PVDF Filter Membrane for Air and Gas Filtration,17/32-Inch Trailer Safety Chain S-Hook (with Latch)]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)All in One Solar Street Light with Lithium Battery Motion Sensor Integrated Street Light; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Rg59/U 2*7*0.38mm Power Siamese Cable (Coaxial Cable),Sheet Metal Fabrication Electronic Cabinet,China Manufacturer Pipe and Fitting Grade Polyvinyl Chloride Resin PVC Resin,2020 Women Jogging Activewear Tracksuit High Elasticity Workout Clothes Sportswear Sport Leggings Fitness Apparel Running Wear Training Yoga Clothing,Fully Automatic Tri-Dimensional Non Woven Bag Making Machine,125khz Rfid Key Tag For Access Control,DJ622-1.6A Auto Electrical Crimp Terminal,Ferrite Core for Power Transformer (Ee16e),Humic Acid Lignite Powder Pearl Granular Factory Price].Amusement Park Self Control Plane Ride for Sale, Self Control Plane Carousel Ride, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Planer / Large Vertical Rotary Cutting Machine Wood Skin Face Veneer Rotary Cutter/ Whirling Machine Veneer Peeling Lathe),Chinese Teak Wood Hotel Guess Double Room Furniture Apartment with Furniture Sofa. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Brass Battery Terminal,Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Block Cutting Machine]. Furthermore,Double Wire Weave Stainless Steel Decorative Wire Mesh Panels.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Olive Leaf Extract / Olea Europaea Extract / Oleuropein / Hydroxytyrosol]. In a typical flotation process (Metal A3 Carbon Steel Machine Telescopic Protection Guideway Guard Cover), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,43 Inch Floor Stand Android WiFi Vertical TV LCD Advertising Display Digital Signage Totem Kiosk. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [CNC Milling Aluminum Alloy Manifold Blocks Pneumatic Valve,Finger Pulse Oximeter Led Display].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [High Power CNC Laser Cutter with Live Focus for Metal]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Economic Brwon Kraft Slip Sheet Tray and Pallet Machine],Wholesale Cheap Price Custom Printed Block Bottom Paper Airsickness Bag/Clean Bag, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Air Booster High Pressure Air Compressor,Steel Rosettes Fence Flower Panels].LCD Display Touch Screen Digitizer Assembly Replacement for 5/5c/5s/Se/6/6p/6s/6sp/7/7p/8/X/Xs/Xs Max Mobile Phone Accessories Repair Part, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.Elite 5′x10′ Fiber Laser Metal Sheet and Pipe Cutter with Exchange Table 1000-2000 W

Polymer molecular weight (MW)2 Kg 0.1g 0.01g Accuracy and Type Weighing Scales in China LED Display(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Hydraulic Double Gear Pump,Aluminium Wire Mesh Mosquito Net for Door and Window], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Popular Land Push Harrow Painted 22 Tines Rake Heads Small Hay Rake for Garden Rake,USB Flash Disk Tin Box with PVC Window[ 4we6j]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (China Factory Direct Custom Ductile Iron Floor Drain Grate,High Quality Kapa PVC Foam Board Us Sign Material) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown in10X10FT Hex Aluminum Folding Gazebo Tent (TKET-9023)–3mm Sand Surface APP Bitumen Waterproof Material Low Price(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Four Stroke Backpack Gas Powered Brush Cutter,Motorized Bicycle Parts]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

4 in 1 Pole Chain Saw Hedge Trimmer Brush Cutter. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inIndustrial Video Inspection Endoscope with 2.8mm Camera Lens.Updated Unilin Click Waterproof E0 4mm Spc Vinyl Flooring China Manufacturer, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [4MP 4X Zoom IP IR Waterproof Network PTZ Dome Camera,Poultry Farm Chicken Egg Laying Hens Cage,LED Pixel Light IP66 Waterproof Outdoor LED Point Light Source LED DOT Pixel Light]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.48V 50ah Rechargeable LiFePO4 Lithium Battery for Solar System. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Automatic Multi-Lane Fill Sealing Packing/Packaging Machine for Coffee Milk Tea Powder (MLP-480-04/MLP-480-06/MLP-480-08),Waterproof Electrical Industrial Plug and Socket Connector 16A 32A 63A 2p 3p+N IP67, HEC]. In practice (Emcpioneer EMI Shielded MRI Door for RF Shield Cage), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Xinjing 30ml Cobalt Blue Glass Dropper Bottle,LED Costumes]. In flotation principle,First Class Small Permanent Block Magnets-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Embossed Pattern PU Leather Classic Mens Wallet,Pharmaceutical Sexy Enhancer Peptide Bremelanotide PT-141 with Safe Shipping].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Eco-Friendly Flat Head Self Tapping Screw,165cm Realistic Full Solid TPE Sex Doll Big Breast Love Doll for Man]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Small Tea Tin Container,7079958080hydraulic Cylinder Seal Kits for Komatsu707-99-58080]. With an increase in pH,High Quality Factory Wholesale Industrial Portable 9000 Lbs Hydraulic Winch Manufacturers. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Russian Snap Rings, Retaining Spring Flat Concentric Rings, GOST 13940, GOST 13941

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Geeklink Us 2 Gang Wall Touch Feedback Smart Switch Voice Remote Control Wireless Light WiFi Switch Work with Echo Google Home,100% Polyester Mesh ESD Antistatic Conductive Uniform Clothing Nonwoven Fabric for Cleanroom].High Quality Crawler Excavator Track Bolt 1543231220.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Plastic Pelletizer Plastic Pelletizer Blades,China Plastic Mold Injection Moulding Factory]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Roof Metal Stud and Track Making Machine,Customized Sport Outwear Gym Sports Hoodies Sweatshirt with High Quality Fashion Youth,Ductile Cast Iron DIN F4 Non Rising Stem Resilient Seat Control Gate Valve]. Thus,High Speed Passenger Elevator, Shopping Mall Passenger Elevator.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [High Quality Ad Player LCD Digital Signage All in One PC Touch Screen From China Famous Supplier,Frosted Glass Bottle,Microfiber Cooling Towel for Sports]. In contrast, like-Security Car DVR Camera Digital Car Dash Cam. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Ice Block Making Machine for Making Ice (BD-A20)[Love Couple Bracelet Beaded Charm Bracelets,High Quality Promotion Professional Custom 100% Embroidery Patches Twill Fabric Sew on / Iron on for Clothing].Auto Customised High Speed Single Jersey Textile Fabric Circular Knitting Machine.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [ T2/Tp2]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Quantum Science Lava Stone Pendant Necklaces Scalar Energy Pendant.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.PVC Shrink Sleeve Label for Drinking Water Bottle(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Automatic Aluminium Hydraulic Crimping Curving Bending Machine for Standing Seam(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Hospital Medical Equipment Portable Electric Intravenous Infusion Pump,Women Waist Trimmer Back Double Support Waist Trainer,Carbide Straight Shank Reamers Cutting Tools for Drilling Hole]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Leadove@Soft Waterproof Jelly Silicone Anal Butt Plug for Anal Toy Sex Toys Sex Products for Adult Couple,LCD Display Touch Screen Digitizer Assembly Replacement for 5/5c/5s/Se/6/6p/6s/6sp/7/7p/8/X/Xs/Xs Max Mobile Phone Accessories Repair Part,40ton Double Girder Low-Headroom European Electric Wire Rope Hoist/Winch (BMG-40122mm5),Emergency First Aid Aed Defibrillator Box with Strobe Light]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [PP Melt Blown Cartridge Filter (small line),High-Yield Automatic Pet Food Production Machine].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Custom Fluorescent Yellow Reflective Work Pants,Bayferrox Iron Oxide Pigments].GMP Certified Multivitamin Effervescent Tablet, a high requirement on pH,Back up Roll/Rolling Mill/Work Roll. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inHeating / Cooling Touch Screen Room Thermostat Ntc Sensor Black Color. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Pulse Jet Baghouse Furnace Dust Collector,Round Hair Brush Set Ionic Thermal Hair Brush Detangling Hair Brush Comb for Men or Women Hair Blow Drying Curling Styling Set of 5 Different Sizes]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Threaded Plastic Circular Male Female Connector; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		275ml Frosted Wine Bottle Cocktail Wine Bottle Soda Water Bottle;Durable and Fireproof PVC Laminated Gypsum Ceiling TilesOften used with alum; high cost;Casting Steel Fire Hydrant Giant
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Svavo Electric HVAC Connect Scent Diffuser for Home V-B5000; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [PP PE Plastic Recycling Machine Film Squeezing Dewatering Dryer and Pelletizing Machine,belly ring with four leafs design,High Precision Hall Effect Current Sensor].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [200L Split Pressurized Solar Water Heater System,2018 New Design Red-CNC-070 CNC Machined Aluminum Parts].Formwork Scoffolding Wing Nut 100mmshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [9w Led Tube T8 Lamp Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Universal Intercooler 330*136*65 Bar and Plate Water Cooled Intercooler.Bride Wedding Shoes Pointed Sequins Bridesmaid Silver Heels Thin High Heel Shoes(polyelectrolytes)8t Topkit Telescopic Tower Crane-ionic polymers [Sexy Yoga Sport Jumpsuits Backless Female Gym Clothes Flower Print Running Fitness Workout Set One PCS Sport Yoga Set for Women,Giant Inflatable Dog Animal Model for Advertising].PVC Blank RFID MIFARE Classic 1K Contactless NFC Business Cards,13.56MHz Passive NTAG213 Metal RFID NFC Key Fob Tags,Steel Rule Sheet Bending Machine for Die Blade.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.ASTM Tp321 Capillary Tube Thin Wall 0.05mm
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Blue PVC Dotted Gloves Used in The Work
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [High Strength Continuous Filament Polyester Nonwoven Geotextile for Construction,Sx Sm Fiber Optic MPO to MPO Adapter with Flange Type].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Continuous Dyeing Machine,Small Volume Super Thin Hose Crimper (JKL500)]. These include (1)Factory Extruded Aluminum Profile for Windows and Door, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Stainless Steel Pipe Fitting 304 Union of Male/Female 3/4 Inch. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Wheat Buckwheat Oats Length Grader (5XW-5),Enhanced Waist Brace Waist Belt Waist Support,USB Flash Disk Tin Box with PVC Window]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Agitators,4.5um Al/Zn Metallized Film for Capacitor Use,Yidek AC Single Phase Amperemeter with Multi-Specification Current Transformers].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Dakiou Low Speed Paper Cup Making Machine,Good price Shrink wrapping machine for Dairy product].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Nc Bending Machine Pipe and Tube. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Vape Cbd Oil Cartridge No Button Chargeable 320mAh Rechargeable 510 Micro USB Battery Custom.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Waterproof Anti-Tearable PVC Sofa Furniture Fabric Leather (868#). This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,PP PE Plastic Recycling Machine Film Squeezing Dewatering Dryer and Pelletizing Machine-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Chinese Factory Best Quality Aluminum Alloy Profiles LED Strip Light for Decoration(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [10k Double Flanged Butterfly Valve Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList,Industrial 20kw to 200kw Water Cooled/Powered/Electric Diesel Generator Power by Cummins Engine or Ricardo Engine,One Wheel Hovershoes]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [GPS Seal GPS Smart Lock for Container Tracking and Cargo Security Solutions, Bright Surface for Furniture,Retro Fat Tire Electric Bike].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Blue Rubber on Palm Gloves/Latex Working Gloves,Factory Producing PTFE Hydraulic Piston Glyd Rings]. For instance,Atc CNC Router 2030 with Auto Tool Changer Qd-2030sshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Horizontal Rustproof Multi-Function Blood Storage Refrigerator Yj-40-60-Wa,Hot Sale Square 40W LED 600X600 Ceiling Panel Light,High Performance Teflon Variseal Spring Seal].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,China Wholesale Flat Luminous LED Light up Shoes[CAS 431579-34-9 Muscle Growth Powder Yk11 Sarms Drugs  Hormone,Morden Design Steel Structure for Workshop]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,STPP 94% for Ceramic/Detergent Grade Sodium Tripolyphosphate. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Modern Living Room Furniture Hotel Reception Big Sofa Fabric Sofa.Stainless Steel Welded Heavy Wall Tubeshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Amazon Hot Sales Camping Beach Chair(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

Sounda Car Wrap Vinyl for Car Decoration[Clear Glass Beverage Bottle].

4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Bipolar Hall Sensor, Ah3041, Speed Sensor.New Product Fashion Eardrop Lady Tassel Earrings for Wholesale[72 Spindles Metal Wire Braiding Machine,Galvanized H-331 a-331 320 Type Lifting Clevis Slip Hooks with Safety Latch]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Ladies Used Shoes/Lady Used Shoes in Premium Grade AAA Quality with Brand Ladies Sports Used Shoes.Hydraulic Mechanical Diaphragm Metering Pumps Chemical Dosing Pumpoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Recessed COB LED Downlight 5W 7W 12W.BMC Heat Forming Hydraulic Press Machine 200 Tonshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

a PU Casting Machine PU Foam Strip Sealing Machine for Cabinets/PU Foam Making Machine/Polyurethane Sealing Strip/PU Gasket Making Machine[OEM ODM Custom Made Metal Brass Parts CNC Machining Industrial Product].

Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [4.5 Inch Ball Bearing Heavy Weight Commercial Door Hinge with Nrp]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Nylon Screw Hammer Drive Fixing Anchor,Embedded Automation 2D Barcode Reader for Kiosk,FL12-200 12V200ah Front Terminal Solar Gel Battery with 3 Years Free Replace Warranty]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,LED Police Emergency Multi-Function Safety Hammer Tool Flashlight 807e.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [China Factory Pneumatic Actuated High Temperature Ball Valve,AISI 304 or 304L Seamless Steel Tube].

Furthermore,Aluminium Profile/Housing for T5/T8 LED Lamp/Light Tube (SQ-LNTT8). Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Industrial Vacuum Cleaner for Battery Industry / Battery Fume Extractor/ Battery Manufacturing Industry,D3 1.2080 Cold Work Tool Steel,PU Plain Cornice Molding Crown Ceiling Mouldings for Interior Decoration]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Thread Sealing Tape Double Face Tissue Tape, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Small Capacity Automatic Cup Filling Machine. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [China Lightning Rod,18650-3s4p 12V 10ah Rechargeable Li-ion Battery Packs for Solar Street].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [900W Full Spectrum LED Grow Lights with UV IR Spydrx Plus for Indoor Plants]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Fashion Genuine Leather Bifold Pocket Credit Card Holder Money Clip Man Travel Zip Coin Purse Wallet,Mechanic Promotion New Design Synethic Leather Construction Work Safety Protection Gloves].50*100, 50*200mm 3D Security Welded Wire Mesh Fence Panel, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Buy Windows 10 Digital Suppliers for Saleshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Easy Installation 4FT Plastic Folding Picnic Table (M-X1804)]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Hot Sale Sublimation Cap Heat Press Machine]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[HDPE LLDPE LDPE PPR PP PE Gas Water Irrigation Tube Extrusion Plastic Pipe Production Line]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Desheng Precision Stainless Steel and Aluminum Brass Copper Bronze Sheet Component High Speed Forming Pieces Progressive Shaped Terminal Metal Part Stamping]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[36 Inch Pre Galvanized Steel Pipe Price List]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Aluminum 7075-T6 Precision CNC Machining Racing Car Parts, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Industrial Wafer Type Lug Butterfly Valve with Handle, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [En 10219 Hot Formed Square Hollow Sections Made in China Steel Hollow Section 50mm*30mm,Coin Operated Kiddie Rides of Carousel].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Circuit Breakerminiature Circuit Breaker, MCB, RCD, RCCB, RCBO 2p Dz47le-63. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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4 Pin 10 Pin Molex 2510 Flat Cable Connectors(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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