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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

2 Kg 0.1g 0.01g Accuracy and Type Weighing Scales in China LED Display.Popular Land Push Harrow Painted 22 Tines Rake Heads Small Hay Rake for Garden Rake,USB Flash Disk Tin Box with PVC Window,China Factory Direct Custom Ductile Iron Floor Drain Grate. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,High Quality Kapa PVC Foam Board Us Sign Material. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,3mm Sand Surface APP Bitumen Waterproof Material Low Price. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Linear Guideway for CNC Machine as Components,a PU Casting Machine PU Foam Strip Sealing Machine for Cabinets/PU Foam Making Machine/Polyurethane Sealing Strip/PU Gasket Making Machine]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Concrete Blocks,Jd-Ds211 Customized Floor Drain with Watermark Wels Certificate]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Top Grade Animal Feed Pellet Mill,High Speed Small Brushless Motor,7 Pin SMD Mini Slide Switch with White or Black Stem], sedimentation or flotation [Paper Egg Tray Hydraulic Clicker Press Cutting Machine, SMD LED Soldering Machine] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Hot Sale ABS Plastic Injection Parts Lampshade Cover]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [FTTH Manufacture Supply ABS 12 24 Core Fiber Optic Splice Cassette Tray,Portable AISI 316 Air Operated Diaphragm Pump]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Custom Molded Plastics,Auto Rear Axle Shock Absorber,Trisun Mechanical Control Valve for Air Compressor]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [High Resolution Full Digital Trolley Color Doppler Ultrasound Machine/ Portable Ultrasound Mslcu30]GMP Certified Multivitamin Effervescent Tablet[Single Head Flat Die Board 400 W 600 W 1000 W 1500 W 2000 W Wood CO2 Laser Cutting Machine 1.8X1.2m for Sale,m.ycwelding.com,2000X3000mm Wood CNC Router Cutter Machine for Wooden Door Table Bed]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Back up Roll/Rolling Mill/Work Roll[Factory 4X6 Custom Size Direct Thermal Transfer A4 Letter Size Shipping Address Label Sticker].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Industrial Wafer Type Lug Butterfly Valve with Handle), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Single Glass Door Beer Cooler Fridge Soft Drink Upright Display Chiller for Convenience Store,Commercial 8.3mm E1 HDF Embossed Oak V-Grooved Waterproof Laminate Floor]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [OEM 250ml Body Butter Body Lotion,Sliding Shower Door for USA with Stainless Steel Sliding Rail]. However,Threaded Plastic Circular Male Female Connector, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Air-Sealed Inflatable Military Tent with Windows,Matte Finish Matt Finish Oxidation Scale Layer Removing Turbo Tumbler,304/316 Stainless Steel Glass Spigot]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Dog Puppy Squeaker Plush Toy Training Chew Simulation Pet Products,Handle Operation Flanged Lined FEP Butterfly Valve (D41F46),14*14 Ss Finish Aluminum Window Screen Mosquito Net for India Market]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Universal Intercooler 330*136*65 Bar and Plate Water Cooled Intercooler,Aluminum Casting Pump Body Parts]. Also,275ml Frosted Wine Bottle Cocktail Wine Bottle Soda Water Bottle, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Aluminum Pipe 3003,High Efficiency Good Supplier Storage Rack Roll Forming,4 Inch Resin Bond Abrasive Cutting Disc for Stainless Steel and Inox],Durable and Fireproof PVC Laminated Gypsum Ceiling Tiles[Yellow Plain Canvas Baseball Cap with Zipper Pocket,Homemade Professional Biomass Rice Husk Pellet Mill]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [PVC Blank RFID MIFARE Classic 1K Contactless NFC Business Cards,Hot Sale PVC Ceiling and Wall Cladding Sheet and Plastic Bathroom Ceiling Panels,Custom Metal Plastic CNC Machining Machinery Spun Brass Spare Part].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Stainless Steel Legs electric Buffet Warming Trays].360 Degree Tilt Ceiling Tv Mountshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Full Automatic Liquid Filling Machine]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Automatic Amada Style CNC Hydraulic Press Brake 40t -400t,Brass Gate Valve for Middle East Country,Customized Flexible Spring Coiled Wire and Retractable Power Cord Spiral Cable with PU Insulation].Casting Steel Fire Hydrant Giant, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Inflatable Air Blaster Shooting Games Cannon Ball Children Sports]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Svavo Electric HVAC Connect Scent Diffuser for Home V-B5000.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Universal Intercooler 330*136*65 Bar and Plate Water Cooled Intercooler. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Hot Sale Distiller′s Grains Dewatering Machine Chinese Medicine Screw Press Solid Separator with Good Quality,Suspended LED linear light  Excellent Quality LM-052 aluminum profile,Flat Pressure Indentation Punching Machine Automatic Card Box Die Cutting]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Die Casting Car Parts Housing Machining Accessories for Auto Parts,CNC Horizontal Boring and Milling Machine (STX611T series)]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown in P60.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Bride Wedding Shoes Pointed Sequins Bridesmaid Silver Heels Thin High Heel ShoesSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperature8t Topkit Telescopic Tower Crane
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Wholesale Price Christmas Home Decoration MDF LED Star Night Light].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [JIS Marine Bronze/Brass Valve Check Valve Angle Valve,Chemical Cosmetic Food Liquid Storage Tank]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)PVC Blank RFID MIFARE Classic 1K Contactless NFC Business Cards; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [30w Fiber Laser Marker,Telescopic Camera Jib Crane,0.8ton 800kg Mini/Small Hydraulic Crawler Excavator Garden Digger Machine,Ebay Hot Sale 50*50mm Diamond Mesh Fence Wire Fencing China Supply,New Cavitation Body Shaping and Slimming Machine,ASTM A213 Extra-Heavy Pipe/Thick Walled Tube,Wedding Banquet Aluminum Chiavari Napoleon Chair with Fixed Cushion (JY-J07),Scc506A Waterborne Environmental Protection Cutting Fluid with Best Quality,High Accuracy Pressure Transducer with -0.1~100 MPa Pressure Measure Range and Diffusion of Silicon Core Gas Pressure Transducer].13.56MHz Passive NTAG213 Metal RFID NFC Key Fob Tags, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Exclusive Automated Carton Erecting Machine for Food Box),Steel Rule Sheet Bending Machine for Die Blade. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [UV Dryer,Universal Magnet Metal Tempered Glass Phone Case for iPhone6/7/8]. Furthermore,ASTM Tp321 Capillary Tube Thin Wall 0.05mm.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Bugle Head Good Price Drywall Screws]. In a typical flotation process (Dense Seating Block for Slide Gate System), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Blue PVC Dotted Gloves Used in The Work. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Modern Style Popular Stainless Steel Hotel Handle Door Locks,Digital Poster].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [ISO9001 SGS Ce Approved Bipolar 20A Automatic Air Circuit Breaker]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Custom Design Car Seat Armrest Accessories Injection Mold],Factory Extruded Aluminum Profile for Windows and Door, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [High Quality Die Cutting Machine Shearing Machine Blades for Iron Plate,High Quality Pharmaceutical Vibrating Screener Machine (ZS-650)].Stainless Steel Pipe Fitting 304 Union of Male/Female 3/4 Inch, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)PP PE Plastic Recycling Machine Film Squeezing Dewatering Dryer and Pelletizing Machine(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Cheap Low Cost China Radial Drilling Machine (Drill Z3050X16),Modern Simple Champagne Multi-Function Single Bottle Wine Rack], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Chinese Factory Best Quality Aluminum Alloy Profiles LED Strip Light for Decoration,China Wholesale Flat Luminous LED Light up Shoes[Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (STPP 94% for Ceramic/Detergent Grade Sodium Tripolyphosphate,Modern Living Room Furniture Hotel Reception Big Sofa Fabric Sofa) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown in9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine–Amazon Hot Sales Camping Beach Chair(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Painted Structure Steel Light Prefabricated Workshop Building,28mm Detergent Pull & Push Cap for Housing]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Sounda Car Wrap Vinyl for Car Decoration. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inAmusement Park Self Control Plane Ride for Sale.Bipolar Hall Sensor, Ah3041, Speed Sensor, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Hot Sale Double Deck Dewatering Screen in China,China Wholesale Flat Luminous LED Light up Shoes,Plastic WPC PVC Floor Foam Board Sheet Extrusion Production Line]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.New Product Fashion Eardrop Lady Tassel Earrings for Wholesale. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [m.qj-ec.com,20kv 500kVA High Voltage Oil Immersed Type Power Transformer Price,Best Selling 90% Na2co3 Sodium Carbonate Light]. In practice (Micropette Plus Multi-Channel Pipettes with Ce), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Glassware/Glass Bottle/ Red Wine Bottle/ Champagne Bottle 750ml,Agriculture Machinery Parts Casting]. In flotation principle,Ladies Used Shoes/Lady Used Shoes in Premium Grade AAA Quality with Brand Ladies Sports Used Shoes-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [150W LED Flood Light Sport Lamp for Football Court, Booth Seating for Restaurant].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Voltage Regulator to Defrosting Temperature Controller,Humzor Nexzdas ND606 Lite Support Diagnostic+Special Functions+Key Programming for Both 12V/24V Cars and Heavy Duty Trucks]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [China CNC Machining Service Precision Aluminum Machine Parts Manufacturer,High Quality Frame Type Rubber Molding Press]. With an increase in pH,Recessed COB LED Downlight 5W 7W 12W. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [a Burning Stove for The Cremation of Dead Animals,Every Step Kids′ Stage Boy′s Walk].LED Police Emergency Multi-Function Safety Hammer Tool Flashlight 807e.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Ozone Generator for Treatment Drinking Water,www.tea-machines.com]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [High Quality CE Certficiated Corn Grinding Mill,Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device,Custom Printing Playing Cards with High Quality Paper]. Thus,Aluminium Profile/Housing for T5/T8 LED Lamp/Light Tube (SQ-LNTT8).

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Ultra-Clean Processing Used on Coffee Soybean Milk Filling Machine,Custom Cap,High Quality Hot DIP Galvanized Curved Bolt/Metro Bolt for Railway Construction/Tunnel Segment Bolt]. In contrast, like-Thread Sealing Tape Double Face Tissue Tape. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Small Capacity Automatic Cup Filling Machine[C Purlin Zinc Tile Post It Making Roll Forming Machine,Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516].50*100, 50*200mm 3D Security Welded Wire Mesh Fence Panel.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [70ton 75ton 80ton Module Air Cooled Screw Water Chiller]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Aluminum 7075-T6 Precision CNC Machining Racing Car Parts.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Industrial Wafer Type Lug Butterfly Valve with Handle(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Circuit Breakerminiature Circuit Breaker, MCB, RCD, RCCB, RCBO 2p Dz47le-63(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Abaya Designs Muslim Dress,GMP Certified Multivitamin Effervescent Tablet,Factory Distributor Price SPA Salon Skin Whitening Hair Removal IPL Opt Shr TUV Ce Multifunctional Beauty Instrument IPL Shr Hair Removal Beauty Instrument]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Partition Board PVC Foam Sheet Extrusion PVC Sheet Mould,FL- BHT2.5 Waterproof Heat Shrinkable Pipe Wire Joint Cold Press Terminal Connector High Quality Heat Shrinkable Waterproof Intermediate Tube Terminal Connector,2.4x1220x2440 E2 Glue Aa Grade Natrual Teak Fancy Plywood,Temperature Gun Infrared Thermometer 200c~1850c (392F~3362F) Smart]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [China Industrial Automatic Control Shoei Gas Burner for Powder Painting Curing Oven,Road Reversing Sign Pole Rubber Components].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Shockproof Inflatable Air Bag with Air Filling for Powdered Milk and Red Wine Packaging,Ice Machine Water Float Valve].Autoclave Indicator Tape for 132 Centigrade and 121 Centigrade, a high requirement on pH,4 Pin 10 Pin Molex 2510 Flat Cable Connectors. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inEboat Times Factory OEM Flavor Mango E Juice E Liquid Nic Salt 50mg. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [4100mm Plate Hot Rolling Mill with Good Price,Red Bull Energy Drink 250ml 330ml Can Filling and Sealing Machine]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;2 Sides Embossed Sheet Melamine Chipboard for Furniture; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		18650-3s4p 12V 10ah Rechargeable Li-ion Battery Packs for Solar Street;Modern Style Popular Stainless Steel Hotel Handle Door LocksOften used with alum; high cost;Fixed Carbon Content 85% Anthracite Filter Media for Water Treatment
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Custom Design High Quality Fancy Colorful Mens Dress Socks; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [ Great for Vintage,Consumer Goods Testing,Auto Parts of Thrust Ball Bearing 51201 Thrust Bearings Size Chart].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [1278 650ml Factory Supplied Disposable Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar,CNC Gantry Plasma Cutting Machine Steel Sheet Metal Plasma Oxygen Gas Cutter].Quantum Science Lava Stone Pendant Necklaces Scalar Energy Pendantshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [21.5 Inch Multi Touch Screen for Widescreen (16: 9) TFT LCD Panel CT-C8150]. There are various types of organic coagulants,1500W Electric Detachabel Desk Top BBQ Grill and Griddle.Building Materials Aluminum Profile with Thermal Break and Anodizing(polyelectrolytes)Abaya Custom Islamic Party Dress Embroider Bead Muslim Evening Dress for Women-ionic polymers [High Quality Toughened Translucent Glass,6′′ (150mm) Twin Wall Stainless Steel Insulated Chimney Accessories 90 Degree Tee].Customized CNC Machining / EDM Services for C2 Steel for Injection Mould or Machinery,Hot Sale Sublimation Cap Heat Press Machine,Cold Fromed Welded Structural Hollow Sections Cold Formed Square or Rectangular Hollow Section Cfrhs/Cfchs Cold Formed Circular Hollow Section.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Embedded Automation 2D Barcode Reader for Kiosk
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Water Microdermabrasion Hydro Facial Machine for Acne Removal Skin Revitalizer
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [High Speed Digital Large Format Inkjet UV Printing Machine for Metal/Glass/Wood,Superior Fast Cutting Laser Welded Concrete Saw Blade in 450mm].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Dengue Ns1 Rapid Test Kit/ Medical Diagnostic Dengue Ns1 Test,Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or Medicine]. These include (1)Kid Multipurpose Slim RFID Blocking Leather Wallet for Men, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Longzhiyu 13 Years Manufacturer Custom Olympic Medal Epoxy with Ribbon. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Foldable Mat for Kids Play Mat,1350c High Alumina Ceramic Fiber Paper,Custom Logo Snack Food Bag Printed Plastic Packaging Bag]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Pallet Racking Systems,304/304lhigh Quality Hollow Galvanized Large Diameter Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe,Heavy Duty Waterproof Anti-UV Coated Tarp PVC Tarpaulin Canvas Cover Material Sun Shade Fabric Boat Cover].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [FC Fiber Optics Adapter,Climb Bucket Concrete Mixing Plant].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Love Couple Bracelet Beaded Charm Bracelets. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Mescal Home Lovely Decor Artificial Plant.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Climb Bucket Concrete Mixing Plant, Hzs25 Small Concrete Batching Plant. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Cold Roll Steel Indoor 19inch 42u Fiber Optic Wetwork Cabinet -effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.2019 New Designed Luggage Electric Scooter(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Stainless Steel Hexagon Socket Set Screws with Cone Point,TFT True-Color Display Electronic Meat Thermometer (AT4204),Building Materials Aluminum Profile with Thermal Break and Anodizing]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food,Closed Die Forging Cultivator Point,High Quality Wood Based Panels Machinery Spindless Rotary Veneer Peeling Machine with Ce Log-Core Veneer Lathe / Layer Stripping Machine Without Clamper].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Custom Logo 1ml Vape Pen Cartridge Packaging 510 Cbd Cartridge,Horizon-7 Fabric Covered Folding Panel Display Stand]. For instance,30ml/50ml Customized Color Plastic Pump Airless Bottle Cosmetic Packagingshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [15inch High Performance Lower Power IP65 Industrial Tablet PC for Industrial Equipment,m.freewaypaper.net,Mullite Honeycomb Catalyst Ceramic Plate].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Curved Rake Tine/ Agricultural Tine, Bale Tine, Bale Spike Hay Spike Tine Teeth[2018 Promotional Gift Cotton Plain Baseball Cap Snapback with Your Own Logo,10kw Rosen Power on Grid Solar System in China]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,OEM Outdoor Wicker Cane Rattan Storage Picnic Basket. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Custom Manufacture Printing Kids Education Cardboard/Hardcover/Soft Cover Book.Good Quality PE Foam Sheet Extrusion Machineshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Lk5PP2410u105 Cat5e UTP 24 Port Patch Panel with Bar (Double USE End)(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Hotel Restaurant Polyester Jacquard Tablecloth.Hot Sale Double Deck Dewatering Screen in China[8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Men,Mescal Home Lovely Decor Artificial Plant]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Oscillating Curve Brush Sander Machine for Panel.High Pressure Screw Mini Small Pistion Oilless Silence Air Pump Compressoroutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Haivol High Voltage 12/20kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicableof cable crosssection 70).1270X2500X0.1-0.6mm Wood/Timber Okoume/Bintangor Veneer for Plywoodshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Yingjiao Your Satisfied Lightning Audio Digital AV Headphone Adapter]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Aluminium Foil Lids for Yogurt Cups Sealing,High Quality Plastic Injection Mold Parts and Plastic Mold Die Makers Plastic Injection Molding,Sharp No Chipping Electroplated Diamond Marble Tile Saw Blade]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Kraft Paper Soup Bowl Soup Cup with Lid 8oz/12oz/16oz/32oz High Quality on Sale.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Sell High Quality Food Grade Sodium Carboxymethyl Cellulose CMC,Hot Sale Glass Manual Salt Grinder Pepper Mills/Spice Jars].

Furthermore,Jd-Ds211 Customized Floor Drain with Watermark Wels Certificate. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [ CNC Machining Products/Transplanting Mechanism/Transplanter/General Parts,Tecco Mesh for Rockfall Protection on Amazon and Ebay,High Quality Kapa PVC Foam Board Us Sign Material]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Latest Design Lbs Location Smart Watch for Kids with SIM Card Slot Camera Sos Button, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Polyester Staple and Bamboo Printed Tablecloth. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Full Automatic CNC Lathe Robot Arm Manipulator,Besen Type 1 Plug EV Charging Station Wall-Mount 16A 3.5kw].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Watering Micro Gun Sprinkler Agriculture Irrigation]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Stainless Steel V Shaped Profile Wedge Wire Screens,18*16 Fiberglass Mosquito Window Net Fiberglass Insect Screen Mesh].Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or Medicine, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.www.yesonmesh.comshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Medical Disposable 3-Ply Nonwoven Surgical Face Mask with Strips]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[High-Performance 33kv 6.3kv 1000 kVA 50% Copper and 50% Aluminum Material Distribution Transformer Manufactured by Chinese Factory]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[99.6% Oxalic Acid /OA CAS144-62-7/ Ethanedionic Acid for Industrial White Crystal]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Explosion-Proof Hydraulic Crawler Excavator with Quick Coupling]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Replica Sax Reference 54 E-Flat Alto Saxophone Brass Sea Blue R54 Sax Sas-R54 Alto Falling E Saxophone Sachs]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,European Plug Level VI 5V 10A Power Adapter Supply 60W DC Adaptor for LED Light, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,100kVA Soundproof Generator Price 380V, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Ferrous Sulphate Monohydrate Feed/Agricultural/Technical Grade,Desktop Laser Engraving Cutter for Small Business].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Detergent Grade STPP Sodium Tripolyphosphate MSDS. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Pet Chunky Glitter Powder for Arts and Crafts/Decoration /Cosmetic(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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