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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
2. Chemical purification process
Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Doy Pouch Packing Machine for Spices].Sublimation Mobile Phone Bracketshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [CO2 Laser Tube Glass Machine]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [13.56MHz Passive NTAG213 Metal RFID NFC Key Fob Tags,Fancy Empty Glass Perfume Bottle Perfume Glass Bottle Refill,Stainless Steel Full Threaded Stud].Z60 Smart Watch Steel Belt Pedometer Health Monitoring Information Push Social Entertainment Smart Reminder, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Tempered Shelf Glass for Shower Room Audited by SGCC ANSI]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Factory of Bq Nq Hq Pq Reaming Shell with 3%Discount.
Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].
2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation
Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [N95 Dust Cover Face Mask Machine]. In a typical flotation process (STPP 94% for Ceramic/Detergent Grade Sodium Tripolyphosphate), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Flaker, Granular, Powder, Pellet Calcium Chloride Used for Protective Agent. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Oil Gas Line Pipe,Food Packaging For Sale].
Figure 4.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Car Plastic Grille Parts Precision Inspection Gauge]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [High Quality Reasonable Mini Home Elevator Used 1 Person],Outdoor Travelling Large Compartment Insulated Trolley Picnic Cooler Bag with Wheels, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Bride Wedding Shoes Pointed Sequins Bridesmaid Silver Heels Thin High Heel Shoes,PA66+GF Polishing Injection Auto Plastic Parts Mould Manufacturer].Flow Control Cast Steel or Ductile Iron Butterfly Valve, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
Partition Board PVC Foam Sheet Extrusion PVC Sheet Mould. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Mer Dental Lab All Ceramic Restorations IPS E. Max Crown. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.
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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Customized Hot Forged Steel Forging Spare Parts Applied in Construction and Agricultural Machinery(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [10-120mm2 Cable Terminal Applicator for Crimping Machine Hydraulic Terminal Machine, Pellet Calcium Chloride Used for Protective Agent], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Ms Gi Pipe Dn15~Dn400 Gi Pipe List,Plastic Faucet and Mold Suppling, Injection Mould Maker in China[Disposable Coffee Cup Vending Machine Prices in India]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Blue Rubber on Palm Gloves/Latex Working Gloves,Dropshipping Factory Custom Make Sneakers with Sublimation Image Printing Design Your Own Shoes) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inTaky Factory Furniture Window Hardware Handle–Piston Pulse Solenoid Valve(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [En31 Suj2 Gcr15 SAE52100 L3 Bearing Steel Round Plate Flat,Black / Green PVC Chain Link Wire Fence]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Quality Stackable Metal Church Chairs (JY-G05),EMC Approved 3 25W Round IP68 Waterproof LED Truck Head Lights]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [www.ritecmachine.com,APP Asphalt Waterproofing Membrane Production Line/Machinery]. With an increase in pH,Small Multi-Channel Fiber Optic Temperature Transmitter. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.
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There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Chinese Factory Best Quality Aluminum Alloy Profiles LED Strip Light for Decoration]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Boot Shape PVC Plastic Protective Terminal Sleeve Insulaton Cover.
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [High Quality Fiber Laser Cutting Machine Laser Engraver Price for Sale,Leg Workout Equipment].Isoflex Insulation Rubber Foam Pipe for Air Conditoners, a high requirement on pH,Double Seats 3 Wheel Electric Mobility Scooter. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented in25kg Sodium Bicarbonate Polypropylene PP Woven Bag with HDPE Liner. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [PVC Shrink Sleeve Label for Drinking Water Bottle,Food Grade Safety Rubber O-Ring Gasket / Steam Valve Gasket]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Wood Chips Rotary Dryer Sawdust Pellet Drying Machine; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Often used with alum; high cost;Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
pH-dependent;Made for You Universal Wireless RF Remote Control Duplicator Yet088; overdose can result in poor effluent quality
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:Supply Colored Viton NBR Silicone Auto Rubber O Ring. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
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Dispersions: In this case,Wheat Buckwheat Oats Length Grader (5XW-5). This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Air-Sealed Inflatable Military Tent with Windows-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Auto Rear Axle Shock Absorber(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Chihu Luxury Electric Leather Recliner Home Cinema Sofa, Power Recliner Home Theater Seating[Customized Indoor or Outdoor Garden Dancing Musical Water Fountain,Android Video Interface Car GPS Navigation System for 2014-2018 Year Mercedes-Benz C-Class A205]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Secondary Hot Rolled Steel Coil 201 Baby Stainless Steel Coil for Tubing. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.C3 C5 Precision 14mm Miniature Ball Screw.China-Made Good Quality Laundry Baset Mouldshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-7075 T6 Cookware Aluminum Round Circle(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [2-Color Handle Adjustable Spanner]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [ Hollow Section,Smash-Proof Puncture-Proof Safety Shoes Labor Shoes Safety Footwear,China Stainless Steel Manual Food Grade & Hygienic Sanitary Ball & Butterfly Valve]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Farm Large Warehouse Dome Storage Building for Sale.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,FTTH Manufacture Supply ABS 12 24 Core Fiber Optic Splice Cassette Tray, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Cement Powder Wheat Flour Silo Bulk Cement Tank Semi Trailer (05), which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [ASME/ASTM Butt-Welding Stainless Steel Plate Flange,Customized CNC Machining / EDM Services for C2 Steel for Injection Mould or Machinery].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Fashion Genuine Leather Bifold Pocket Credit Card Holder Money Clip Man Travel Zip Coin Purse Wallet. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
Acknowledgments
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Natural Birch F&B Veneer Furniture Plywood(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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