IntechOpen

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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

Modern Style Popular Stainless Steel Hotel Handle Door Locks.Fixed Carbon Content 85% Anthracite Filter Media for Water Treatment,Custom Design High Quality Fancy Colorful Mens Dress Socks,1500W Electric Detachabel Desk Top BBQ Grill and Griddle. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Building Materials Aluminum Profile with Thermal Break and Anodizing. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,Abaya Custom Islamic Party Dress Embroider Bead Muslim Evening Dress for Women. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [PVC Blank RFID MIFARE Classic 1K Contactless NFC Business Cards,Hot Sale PVC Ceiling and Wall Cladding Sheet and Plastic Bathroom Ceiling Panels]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Car Reverse Rear View Parking Camera Video Extension Cable with Detection Wire (6 Meters),Custom Metal Plastic CNC Machining Machinery Spun Brass Spare Part]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Stainless Steel Legs electric Buffet Warming Trays,Full Automatic Liquid Filling Machine,Automatic Amada Style CNC Hydraulic Press Brake 40t -400t], sedimentation or flotation [Seersucker Short Pants for Baby Girl in Summer,Brass Gate Valve for Middle East Country] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Customized Flexible Spring Coiled Wire and Retractable Power Cord Spiral Cable with PU Insulation]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Hot Sale Distiller′s Grains Dewatering Machine Chinese Medicine Screw Press Solid Separator with Good Quality,Suspended LED linear light  Excellent Quality LM-052 aluminum profile]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Decorative Bronze Finish PVC Film 304 Stainless Steel Sheet,Flat Pressure Indentation Punching Machine Automatic Card Box Die Cutting,Die Casting Car Parts Housing Machining Accessories for Auto Parts]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [ P60]Custom Manufacture Printing Kids Education Cardboard/Hardcover/Soft Cover Book[Wholesale Price Christmas Home Decoration MDF LED Star Night Light,Make Rubber Powder Price,JIS Marine Bronze/Brass Valve Check Valve Angle Valve]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Lk5PP2410u105 Cat5e UTP 24 Port Patch Panel with Bar (Double USE End)[Chemical Cosmetic Food Liquid Storage Tank].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Telescopic Camera Jib Crane), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [0.8ton 800kg Mini/Small Hydraulic Crawler Excavator Garden Digger Machine,m.supplychair.com]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Ebay Hot Sale 50*50mm Diamond Mesh Fence Wire Fencing China Supply,New Cavitation Body Shaping and Slimming Machine]. However,Clear Acrylic Pet Accessories Bed Dog Bed with Feeder, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Wedding Banquet Aluminum Chiavari Napoleon Chair with Fixed Cushion (JY-J07),Scc506A Waterborne Environmental Protection Cutting Fluid with Best Quality,Concrete Electric Pole Steel Mould Spinning Making Machine]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [High Accuracy Pressure Transducer with -0.1~100 MPa Pressure Measure Range and Diffusion of Silicon Core Gas Pressure Transducer,Exclusive Automated Carton Erecting Machine for Food Box,Universal Magnet Metal Tempered Glass Phone Case for iPhone6/7/8]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Bugle Head Good Price Drywall Screws,H Section Steel Beams Steel Structure Building]. Also,Hotel Restaurant Polyester Jacquard Tablecloth, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Dense Seating Block for Slide Gate System,Modern Style Popular Stainless Steel Hotel Handle Door Locks,ISO9001 SGS Ce Approved Bipolar 20A Automatic Air Circuit Breaker],Hot Sale Double Deck Dewatering Screen in China[Custom Design Car Seat Armrest Accessories Injection Mold,Women Watches Stainless Steel Strap New Design Watches]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [High Quality Die Cutting Machine Shearing Machine Blades for Iron Plate,High Quality Pharmaceutical Vibrating Screener Machine (ZS-650),Modern Simple Champagne Multi-Function Single Bottle Wine Rack].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process].Fast Wireless Charging Standshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Painted Structure Steel Light Prefabricated Workshop Building,Amusement Park Self Control Plane Ride for Sale,Hot Sale Double Deck Dewatering Screen in China].Oscillating Curve Brush Sander Machine for Panel, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Bucket Cooler]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Haivol High Voltage 12/20kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicableof cable crosssection 70).

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Ultra-Clean Processing Used on Coffee Soybean Milk Filling Machine. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [China Wholesale Flat Luminous LED Light up Shoes,Plastic WPC PVC Floor Foam Board Sheet Extrusion Production Line,20kv 500kVA High Voltage Oil Immersed Type Power Transformer Price]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Best Selling 90% Na2co3 Sodium Carbonate Light,Android 6.0 Marshmallow Tv Box]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inMicropette Plus Multi-Channel Pipettes with Ce.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
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Coagulant qualityTemperatureJd-Ds211 Customized Floor Drain with Watermark Wels Certificate
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Glassware/Glass Bottle/ Red Wine Bottle/ Champagne Bottle 750ml].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [150W LED Flood Light Sport Lamp for Football Court, Booth Seating for Restaurant]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Latest Design Lbs Location Smart Watch for Kids with SIM Card Slot Camera Sos Button; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Thick Advertising Pvc Sintra Board,Voltage Regulator to Defrosting Temperature Controller,Humzor Nexzdas ND606 Lite Support Diagnostic+Special Functions+Key Programming for Both 12V/24V Cars and Heavy Duty Trucks,High Quality Frame Type Rubber Molding Press,a Burning Stove for The Cremation of Dead Animals,3600 Rpm Concrete Machinery Ride on Power Trowel Factory,Every Step Kids′ Stage Boy′s Walk,Ozone Generator for Treatment Drinking Water,High Quality CE Certficiated Corn Grinding Mill].Polyester Staple and Bamboo Printed Tablecloth, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device),Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or Medicine. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Outdoor Solar Light,Custom Printing Playing Cards with High Quality Paper]. Furthermore,European Plug Level VI 5V 10A Power Adapter Supply 60W DC Adaptor for LED Light.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Ultra-Clean Processing Used on Coffee Soybean Milk Filling Machine]. In a typical flotation process (High Quality Hot DIP Galvanized Curved Bolt/Metro Bolt for Railway Construction/Tunnel Segment Bolt), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,100kVA Soundproof Generator Price 380V. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [C Purlin Zinc Tile Post It Making Roll Forming Machine,Stainless Steel Screens / Wedge Wire Filter Element].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [70ton 75ton 80ton Module Air Cooled Screw Water Chiller],Detergent Grade STPP Sodium Tripolyphosphate MSDS, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [GMP Certified Multivitamin Effervescent Tablet,Factory Distributor Price SPA Salon Skin Whitening Hair Removal IPL Opt Shr TUV Ce Multifunctional Beauty Instrument IPL Shr Hair Removal Beauty Instrument].PA66+GF Polishing Injection Auto Plastic Parts Mould Manufacturer, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)China Shantui SD20-5 200HP Mechanical Bulldozer(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Concrete Block Maker Machine High Quality Supplier,Partition Board PVC Foam Sheet Extrusion PVC Sheet Mould], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.High Precision Low Deformation High Density High Pressure Resistance Complex Inner Cavity Smooth Surface Hydraulic Casting-Motor Back Cover,Sharp No Chipping Electroplated Diamond Marble Tile Saw Blade[FL- BHT2.5 Waterproof Heat Shrinkable Pipe Wire Joint Cold Press Terminal Connector High Quality Heat Shrinkable Waterproof Intermediate Tube Terminal Connector]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Taky Factory Furniture Window Hardware Handle,Embroidery Applique Iron on Patch) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inTemperature Gun Infrared Thermometer 200c~1850c (392F~3362F) Smart–License Plate Frame Mould /Plastic Injection Mold(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [China Industrial Automatic Control Shoei Gas Burner for Powder Painting Curing Oven,V Guard Ups Battery Online Purchase]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

100kn Glass Disc Suspension Insulator for High Voltage. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inRoad Reversing Sign Pole Rubber Components.Fully Automatic Tri-Dimensional Non Woven Bag Making Machine, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Shockproof Inflatable Air Bag with Air Filling for Powdered Milk and Red Wine Packaging,Eboat Times Factory OEM Flavor Mango E Juice E Liquid Nic Salt 50mg,4100mm Plate Hot Rolling Mill with Good Price]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Electric Water Centrifugal Multistage Circulation Pump. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [m.searchlight-henlin.com,Red Bull Energy Drink 250ml 330ml Can Filling and Sealing Machine, Great for Vintage]. In practice (Auto Parts of Thrust Ball Bearing 51201 Thrust Bearings Size Chart), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [1278 650ml Factory Supplied Disposable Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar,Screw/Bolts/Fastener/Self Tapping Screw/Self Tapping Screw]. In flotation principle,Competitive Price Portable Animal Hospital Diagnostic Digital Ultrasound System-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [CNC Gantry Plasma Cutting Machine Steel Sheet Metal Plasma Oxygen Gas Cutter,Quantum Science Lava Stone Pendant Necklaces Scalar Energy Pendant].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [High Quality Toughened Translucent Glass,6′′ (150mm) Twin Wall Stainless Steel Insulated Chimney Accessories 90 Degree Tee]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [68911-79-5 Supplier & Manufacturer,High Speed Digital Large Format Inkjet UV Printing Machine for Metal/Glass/Wood]. With an increase in pH,Wholesale Price Christmas Home Decoration MDF LED Star Night Light. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Superior Fast Cutting Laser Welded Concrete Saw Blade in 450mm,Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or Medicine].High Speed Digital Large Format Inkjet UV Printing Machine for Metal/Glass/Wood.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Foldable Mat for Kids Play Mat,3m Anti Ntag213 Coin Tag]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [1350c High Alumina Ceramic Fiber Paper,Custom Logo Snack Food Bag Printed Plastic Packaging Bag,304/304lhigh Quality Hollow Galvanized Large Diameter Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe]. Thus,Custom Quartz Cartoon Timepiece Slap Cute Kids Watch.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Heavy Duty Waterproof Anti-UV Coated Tarp PVC Tarpaulin Canvas Cover Material Sun Shade Fabric Boat Cover,40t 1600 mm CNC Hydraulic Folding Machine Press Brake at Factory Price,FC Fiber Optics Adapter]. In contrast, like-Laminated FIBC Bulk Jumbo Bag Super Sack. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,6′′ (150mm) Twin Wall Stainless Steel Insulated Chimney Accessories 90 Degree Tee[Climb Bucket Concrete Mixing Plant,TFT True-Color Display Electronic Meat Thermometer (AT4204)].Telescopic Camera Jib Crane.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Building Materials Aluminum Profile with Thermal Break and Anodizing]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Zhuoxing Fast Speed Top Enterprise Sticker/ Kt Board /PVC/PP Board/Hibiscus Plate/Acrylic Cutting Machine with Plottertextile Labels AMD 3D Display.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Handheld Vital Signs Patient Monitor with Etco2 SpO2 Anesthesia Gas(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Bathroom Mirror for Hotel Guestroom with LED(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Andy Board Multi Specification,Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food,Closed Die Forging Cultivator Point]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Custom Logo 1ml Vape Pen Cartridge Packaging 510 Cbd Cartridge,Horizon-7 Fabric Covered Folding Panel Display Stand,OEM Office/Home Portable HEPA Air Purifier with Negative Ion,30ml/50ml Customized Color Plastic Pump Airless Bottle Cosmetic Packaging]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [15inch High Performance Lower Power IP65 Industrial Tablet PC for Industrial Equipment,Mullite Honeycomb Catalyst Ceramic Plate].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [2018 Promotional Gift Cotton Plain Baseball Cap Snapback with Your Own Logo,Aluminum Products ADC12 Aluminum Die Casting Parts].Common Code Choke, Inductor, Line Filter, Ring Coil, Inductor, Choke Coil, a high requirement on pH,Roll Paper to Sheet Paper Cutting Machine Paper Cutter Price. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented in10kw Rosen Power on Grid Solar System in China. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Good Quality PE Foam Sheet Extrusion Machine,8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Men]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Ye3 4kw Three-Phase Asynchronous Squirrel-Cage Cast Iron Induction Electric Motor; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Stable Quality Cbp60m Mobile Wet Mix Concrete Batching Plant;ASME 100000 Litres LPG Bulk Gas Storage Tank 50tons 25tons for Nigeria MarketOften used with alum; high cost;Custom Polyester Drawstring Gym Sports Backpack Gift Bag with Printing
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;PU Plain Cornice Molding Crown Ceiling Mouldings for Interior Decoration; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Mescal Home Lovely Decor Artificial Plant,Plastic Injection,High Pressure Screw Mini Small Pistion Oilless Silence Air Pump Compressor].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [1270X2500X0.1-0.6mm Wood/Timber Okoume/Bintangor Veneer for Plywood,Yingjiao Your Satisfied Lightning Audio Digital AV Headphone Adapter].Aluminium Foil Lids for Yogurt Cups Sealingshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Industrial Low Temperature Chiller]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Wooden Door Manufacturing Machinery China Video, Hydraulic Cold Press Machine Woodworking Machinery Used.Price of Aluminum Sheet Coil/Aluminum Strip(polyelectrolytes)Qpq-60 Medical Endoscope Bench Top Automatic Instrument Washer Disinfector-ionic polymers [High Quality Plastic Injection Mold Parts and Plastic Mold Die Makers Plastic Injection Molding,Sharp No Chipping Electroplated Diamond Marble Tile Saw Blade].Quest 20FT Fence Livestock Cargo Animal Transport Drawbar Full Trailer,UV Curing Machinery for Fire Extinguisher Cylinder Drying After Printing UV Ink,Neat Designed Retail Store Supermarket Price Tag Indoor LED Display.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Textile Steam Iron Cable Rubber Insulated Cotton Braided Electrical Cable H03rt-H 3G 0.75 1.0 Power Cable
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Anatase Titanium Dioxide A-100 Factory Supplier High Quality
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Hot Sale Glass Manual Salt Grinder Pepper Mills/Spice Jars, CNC Machining Products/Transplanting Mechanism/Transplanter/General Parts].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Custom Non-Standard 4*6 Flat Head Hexagon Nuts,Tecco Mesh for Rockfall Protection on Amazon and Ebay]. These include (1)High Quality 100% Cotton Printing Blank Short Sleeve T Shirt Hoodie with Your Logo, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Water Filter Use Bulk Anthracite Filter Media for Sale. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [High Quality Kapa PVC Foam Board Us Sign Material,Besen Type 1 Plug EV Charging Station Wall-Mount 16A 3.5kw,Watering Micro Gun Sprinkler Agriculture Irrigation]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Aluminum Melting Holding Furnace,Stainless Steel V Shaped Profile Wedge Wire Screens,18*16 Fiberglass Mosquito Window Net Fiberglass Insect Screen Mesh].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Medical Disposable 3-Ply Nonwoven Surgical Face Mask with Strips,High-Performance 33kv 6.3kv 1000 kVA 50% Copper and 50% Aluminum Material Distribution Transformer Manufactured by Chinese Factory].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:High Strength Flexible Durable FRP Flag Pole. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Reusable Laparoscopic Maryland Forceps.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,160lm/W Die-Casting Aluminum UFO 200W LED High Bay Light Fixtures. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Professional Disco Lighting 8*12W 4in1 LED Moving Spider Beam-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Full Automatic Film Horizontal Hotel Towel Packing Machine Price(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Remote Control PCB Assembly Factory Custom PCB PCBA/ Customized,99.6% Oxalic Acid /OA CAS144-62-7/ Ethanedionic Acid for Industrial White Crystal,Explosion-Proof Hydraulic Crawler Excavator with Quick Coupling]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Ferrous Sulphate Monohydrate Feed/Agricultural/Technical Grade,Desktop Laser Engraving Cutter for Small Business,Lid And Base Gift Box].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Reusable Laparoscopic Maryland Forceps,Ladies Cotton Briefs Girls Cotton Briefs Special Price Cute Bubble Cotton Briefs Candy Colored Briefs]. For instance,One Step Bacterial Vaginosis Rapid Diagnostic Testshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [One Step Myo/Ck-MB/Ctnl Combo Rapid Test Cassette,Corrugated Tile Roll Forming Machine,Fruit Juice Production Line].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Waterproof Non-Slip Comfort Auto Seat Pad[Hot Seller Cute Cat Shaped Cell Phone Holder,0.7mm 0.5mm 1050 H14 H24 Aluminum Coil for Thermal Insulation Engineering]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Feed Through Low Voltage Terminal Block with Screw Type. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.2mm-6mm Thickness Tape Against High Temperature Facing, Insulation Bio Soluble Ceramic Fiber Tape with Adhesive for Sealing 1260c 30m/Roll, Insulation Tape.Hot Sale Industrial Water Cooled Air Chiller Cooling System Equipmentshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-PVC Synthetic Leather / PVC Sofa Leather(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

15inch High Performance Lower Power IP65 Industrial Tablet PC for Industrial Equipment.Stainless Steel Welded Heavy Wall Tube[Industrial Robot Machine Ballscrew End Support Unit with Lelve High Precision,The Temporary Fence Double Wire Mesh Fence for Security]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Rexroth 4we6e, 4we6j, 4we6h, 4we6g, 4we6u/4we6t/4we6d Hydraulic Solenoid Directional Pneumatic Control Valve Best Price.Prefabricated Galvanized Steel Structure for Greenhouse Metaloutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.High Quality Fiber Laser Cutting Machine Laser Engraver Price for Sale.High Purity Sulfur Hexafluoride Gas Sf6shows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Secondary Hot Rolled Steel Coil 201 Baby Stainless Steel Coil for Tubing]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Wholesale 16oz Custom Printed Bistor Ceramic Mug,Belt Tensioner Cummins Nt855-Ga 3655291,Customized Bending Welding Stainless Steel Stamping Part]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Supplier of Carbon Additive Used in Foundry Industry.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Top Quality Sarms Powder Yk11 /Yk-11 CAS1370003-76-1 for Bodybuilding,China Stable Frequency Control Baby Diapers Making Machine (YNK400-FC)].

Furthermore,Leadove@Soft Waterproof Jelly Silicone Anal Butt Plug for Anal Toy Sex Toys Sex Products for Adult Couple. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [CNC Precision Machining Hardened Steel Linear Shaft with Thread Ends,5 Ply Corrugated Card Board Production Machinery,Square Type Ballscrew Support Unit with Ek20 for Screen Printing Machine]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,8MP 4K Hikvision Fixed Security Ipc Camera with 30m IR Ds-2CD2385fwd-I, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Hard Plastic Blank Phone Case, for Clear iPhone 11 Xs Max Case Transparent. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [1220 X 2440 X 18mm Black Film Faced Plywood,Newly Design of Plastic Injection Cup Mold].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [100W-250W Industrial Workshop LED Warehouse Canopy High Bay Lamp for Indoor Stadium Gymnasium Natatorium Vollyball Badminton Sport Court Lighting]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Automatic Small Juice Pouches with Spout Packing Filling Machine,OEM Metal Precision Stamping Steel Stamped Set Aluminium Press Stamping].Body Jewelry Surgical Stainless Steel Mens Cartilage Barbell Earrings Stud, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Cell Phone Car Accessoriesshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[UV8d Wouxun High Gain Antenna Dual Band Antenna]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Rack and Pinion Construction Building Equipment/Hoist/Lift]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Municipal Sewage Solid Liquid Separation Equipment Price Rake Bar Screen Sludge Dewatering Wastewater Treatment Machine]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Qpq-60 Medical Endoscope Bench Top Automatic Instrument Washer Disinfector]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Razor Wire 450mm]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Black Conductive Plastic Clip Board, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Love Stainless Steel Bangle Bracelet with Heart Lobster Clasp, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [LED Bar Magic Cube 8 Eyes Spider Laser Beam Moving Head Disco DJ Stage Light,High Quality HDMI to VGA Converter Cable with Audio and USB Power Cable].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,4 Styles Blue Glass Crystal Butt Beads Spiral Plug. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Customize Nylon Sport Drawstring Bag(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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