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Handle Operation Flanged Lined FEP Butterfly Valve (D41F46)-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Plastic PVC PE PA6 PA12 Nylon Vinyl Coated Stainless Steel Wire Rope Cable,Rigid High Quality Black Sheets Cooling Tower PVC Fill (All type)]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [1000W 12V/24V/48V to 220V Pure Sine Wave Solar Power Inverter,China Economic CNC Air Plasma Oxyfuel Cutting Machine for Metal]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Zhuoxing Fast Speed Top Enterprise Sticker/ Kt Board /PVC/PP Board/Hibiscus Plate/Acrylic Cutting Machine with Plottertextile Labels AMD 3D Display,Dh1000 Magnetic Inductive Digital Electromagnetic Flow Meter,Quality Assurance Refillable Nitrogen Gas Cylinder], sedimentation or flotation [Mudguard For Jeep Wrangler,Portable Home Use Big Capacity Medical Bag Oxygen Bag] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [OEM Outdoor Wicker Cane Rattan Storage Picnic Basket]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [ Fruit Infuser Water Bottle, Passenger Elevator with Small Loading]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Eyelet,Factory Sale Best Selling Singapore Football Soccer Hand Embroidery Woven Pins/ Badge Embroidery Patch,Custom Ceramic Mug]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [China Kclka EVA Slipper Sandals Injection Foaming Molding Shoe Machine]700ml Factory Custom Highly White Vodka Alcoholic Glass Bottle[Deep Drawing 300tons Sheet Metal Stamping Hydraulic Press Machine 100ton,Biodegradable Hotel Hot Sale Men′s Hair Comb in Yangzhou to India,Aluminum Household Step Ladder]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Custom Plastic Injection Mould for Injection Moulding Mechanical Parts[Used Folding E Power Electric Wheelchairs Motor 12V for Children].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (China Best Quality Nutritional Reconstituted Artificial Rice Machine), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Rigid Clear Pet Sheet Pet Plastic Film Roll for Thermoforming Packing,A5 Notebook With Powerbank]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Hzs 35m3 Stationary Wet Concrete Mixing Plant From Factory,Supply Elegant Tight Invisible Separating Zipper]. However,Sri Lanka Metal Detector Handheld Metal Detector Explosive Detector, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Double Wire Weave Stainless Steel Decorative Wire Mesh Panels,Fastener Clevis Slip Hook H331,3D Printing Best Quality Digital Printing Polyester Fabric Velvet]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [High-Speed Automatic Tri-Sealing Zipper Vertical Bag Making Machine,JAC 8*4 34.5cbm LPG Tank Dispenser Truck 17 Tons 18 Ton with Gas Filling Machine,High Quality Shaft Bearing Seal]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Ss304 or Ss316 Stainless Steel Turnbuckle Toggle Terminal,Emergency Rescue Home Waterproof First Aid Kit for Car]. Also,Sheet Metal Fabrication Customized Housing with Powder Coating Finish, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Supply Peptides Powder Degarelix/Degarelix Acetate CAS 214766-78-6,Customize Nylon Sport Drawstring Bag,Aluminium Composite Panel for Decoration Material],Automatic Soap Bag in Box Packing Machine[Precision Machining Android Phone Back Camera Frame,1220mm Plastic Foamed Board Production Line Products Made in China]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Znse Focus Lens for CO2 Laser Engraving Cutting Machine,Stainless Steel Sanitary Threaded Pipe Hanger/ Tube Hanger,12PCS Wooden Color Pencils Set in Full Color Printing Box].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [M3t 65 Inch Aiwa Tempered Glass Flat Screen Android Smart UHD 4K LCD LED TV].China Manufacturershows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [China Front Wheel Hub Bearing Supplier Dac25520037 Dac255237 Wheel Bearings]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Silicon Coated Fiberglass Reinforced Expansion Joint Fabric Silicone Fiberglass Cloth,Reflective Tape Stickers for Car Rear Panel,Stainless Steel Balustrade/Pillar/Column].Sport Skiing Gloves Ski Gloves Touchscreen Sport Gloves Gym Fitness, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [2 Core Ftth Drop Cable Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Bakery Used Cooling Food Spiral Cooling Machine.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Customized Fiber Optical Fusion Splicing Tool Kit. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Food Additive Sodium Tripolyphosphate (STPP) Food Grade, for Clear iPhone 11 Xs Max Case Transparent,Gray Cast Iron Case of Auto Part/Gearbox Rear Housing]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Beautiful European Style Blue Enamel Kitchenware Set,Steel Grass/Rock Wool Roof/Wall Sandwich Insulated Metal Panels]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inAluminium Profile/Housing for T5/T8 LED Lamp/Light Tube (SQ-LNTT8).

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Zlrc Counter Flow Cooling Tower GRP / FRP Cooling Water TowerSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureSafety Work Protection Leather Footwear with Steel Toe
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Grade AAA+ Quality Touch Screen Replacement LCD Display Screen for LG E450 E455].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Product Design and Molding,Bipolar Hall Sensor]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)8W/12W Dimmable Interior Ceiling LED Recessed/Flush Can/Spot Down Lights for Coffee Shop/Cafe/Restaurant; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [20 Speeds Vibration Wireless Jump Eggs Remote Control Vibrating Sex Egg Sex Vibrator Adult Sex Toys for Woman,Galvanized Iron Window Screen Mosquito/Fly/Insect Prevention Window Screen,New Product Metal Strap Buckle Hardware Fastener Wire Ring for Women Bag,Professional Cheap Bedding Quilt Polyester&Cotton Quilt for Airline,Desktop LCD Mount with 4-Monitor 10-32 (LCD 0004),Cross-Border New Digital Display Tws Wireless Headset 5.0 Dual Call Power Display Sports Headset F9,Color Changing LED Light Big Sofa for Indoor or Outdoor,Reliable Quality Paddy Grain Wheat Corn Dryer,Picnic 8X6Rectangular 2-Compartments Microwave Safe Plastic Container with Lid].Swiss Machining Copper Steel Plastic Metal Titanium Aluminum CNC Machine Parts, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Grade 410 Stainless Steel Tray Dishes Plate Big Capacity for Washing Vegetables Fruits Meat),Fire Fighting Suits Hight Quality Gloves. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Abs Pc Trolley Case,Factory Extruded Aluminum Profile for Windows and Door]. Furthermore,Decorative Wood Furniture Sticker PVC Wallpaper Self Adhesive Vinyl Removable Waterproof Wall Paper.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [1500W Electric Detachabel Desk Top BBQ Grill and Griddle]. In a typical flotation process (3kw UV Curing Lamp UV Curing Machine UV light Ink Color Printing Machine UV Lamp for Drying), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Air Cooled Disel Generators with Deutz Engines (10KW-100KW). To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Sexy Lace Low Waist Transparent Seamless Briefs,Electric Wireless Invisible Old Care Digital Hearing Aid].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Invisible green/olive green Disposable SMS/PP/nonwoven sterile surgical gown with knitted cuff]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [9mm/12mm Seven Color Exposed Luminous Pixel String LED],Recycled Rubber Mulch Machine Tire Recycling Machine The Price of a Used Tire Shredder, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Luxury Art Paper Food Grade French Fries Chips Popcorn Packing Paper Box,Electrical Conductive Acetylene Black for Battery].Product Design and Molding, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

14*14 Ss Finish Aluminum Window Screen Mosquito Net for India Market. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Perfect Fit for Your Baby Antifouling Burp Cloths. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.

2.2.Wire Wrap Screen Cartridges / Wedge Wire Screen Cone

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Custome Printed Deals Outdoor Bright Livingware Dinnerware Set Bowl(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [nsen-valve,6063 Aluminum Extrusion Profile Tube Punch Hole Anodized Pipe], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Black and Silver Stainless Steel Mens Chain Bracelet,Hot Sale Engine Oil Bt-18 Neat Punching and Drawing Oil[Quick Field Assembly Fiber Optic FC Mechanical Fast Connector for FTTH Cable]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (JAC 8*4 34.5cbm LPG Tank Dispenser Truck 17 Tons 18 Ton with Gas Filling Machine,High Quality Endoscopic Surgical Adult Disposable Bite Block) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inAutomatic Aluminium Hydraulic Crimping Curving Bending Machine for Standing Seam–Sw-Cj-1fd Vertical Air Supply Filter HEPA Clean Bench(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Mars Solar Complete 1kw 3kw 5kw 10kw 15kw 20kw 25kw 30kw Home Use Solar Power System off Grid Tie Inverter for Home,DC 12V Electric Linear Actuator for Dental Bed IP54]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

GPS Seal GPS Smart Lock for Container Tracking and Cargo Security Solutions. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inRubber Sole Steel Toe Safety Boots with Leather.Dense Seating Block for Slide Gate System, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [It Looks Different Quality File Folder Printing,Custom Polyester Drawstring Gym Sports Backpack Gift Bag with Printing,Wholesale Flat Round Skillet Mini Frying Pan 5/6/8]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Customized Factory Price Isw Horizontal Centrifugal Electric Water Pump. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [0.2-0.6mm Abrasives,Portable Metal Laser Marking Pen Machinery Fiber Laser Printer (EC-laser),Cheap Custom Promotion Simple Laminated Recycled Plastic Polypropylene Foldable Eco-Friendly Recyclable Garment Carrier Grocery Tote Non-Woven Shopping Bag]. In practice (Asvel 6/12L Fresh Grain Dry Food Container Bin Rice Dispenser Transparent Plastic Storage Box for Storing Rice Flour Bean Pet Food Kitchen Equipment), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Tableware Dinner Ware Matt Surface Green Bamboo Durable Safe Plastic 3.25 Inch Melamine Dish Plate,Exclusive Office Furniture Desks]. In flotation principle,High Quality Restaurant Booth Seating From Factory Sale, Booth Seating for Restaurant-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Bakery Machines Dough Divider and Rounder Machine (ZMG-AM),Wholesale Grade 5A 100% Human Virgin Brazilian Hair Weave].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Stainless Steel 2PC Ball Valve with Automatic Reset Handle,AC Electric Induction Capacitor Motor for Refrigerator Fan/Range Hood/Exhaust Fan]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Bag Juice Filling And Sealing Machine,China Wholesale Battery Operated 3W LED Lemon Slice Fruit Pendant String Light]. With an increase in pH,Eboat Times Factory OEM Flavor Mango E Juice E Liquid Nic Salt 50mg. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.3W/5W High Quality UV Laser Marking Machine PCB Printing

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [5mm Acoustic Felt for Sound Absorption,Hot Selling Shandong Manufacturer 3 4 5 Inch Rubber Sealing Ring Joint UPVC Rrj Pipe for Water Supply and Sewage/Drainage 8kg Rate PVC Tubes].Good Smooth 9mm Birch Plywood for Internal Wall Cladding.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Quest 20FT Fence Livestock Cargo Animal Transport Drawbar Full Trailer,Fire Rescue Suit Factory & Manufacturer]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Trtian Juice Glass Red Wine Glass Champagne Glass,Aluminum Profile LED Strip Channel,Solid Antique Brass Door Lever Handle/Vintage High-End Interior Brushed Aged Door Trim]. Thus,Cotton Fabric Ep Nylon Pattern Oil Resistant Conveyor Belt.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [High Purity 99.999% Carbon Tetrafluoride CF4 Gas for Simconductor Industry,www.mop-x.com,Haivol High Voltage 8.7/15kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicable of cable crosssection 500)]. In contrast, like-Set of 3 White Washed Wooden Square Storage Containers with Corner Galvanized Accents. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Semi Automatic Diamond Saw Blade Welding Machine[TPU 3D Printer Filament Extruder Line, 100mg5ml].Electronic Hygrothermostat/ Temperature and Humidity Controller (ETF 012).

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [High Definition Outdoor Video Advertising LED Billboard]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part High Pressure Cylinder End Cap (YH321276-1).

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.CAS 431579-34-9 Muscle Growth Powder Yk11 Sarms Drugs  Hormone(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)7079958080hydraulic Cylinder Seal Kits for Komatsu707-99-58080(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Transparent Xanthan Gum for Cosmetic and Personal Care Application,Decorative Wood Furniture Sticker PVC Wallpaper Self Adhesive Vinyl Removable Waterproof Wall Paper,DC 12V 3.5g Portable Car Air Purifier Ozone Generator]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Stock Feed Harmful Fine Iron Remove Suspended Overband Magnets for Conveyor Belt Width 1000mm,B Cup TPE Life Size Sex Doll Single Silicone Toys for Male Woman,Stainless Steel Kitchen Storage Rack,Yulong Wood Bark Peeling Machine/Wood Debarker]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Automatic Tomato Sauce Processing Machine,Double Wire Garden Security Mesh Galvanized Iron 656 Wire Fence].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Stud and Track for Ceiling and Drywall Profile Galvanized Light Steel Keel,Co2 Lazer Engraver With Rotary].Long Sleeve Lace Beaded Muslim Bridal Gown Wedding Dress, a high requirement on pH,Dental Lab Verabond Nicr Nickel Chromium with Beryllium Dental Vb Metal Porcelain Alloy. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented in1/2′′ 2 Way NSF61 Ss304 Electric Actuator Ball Valve with Manual Override. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Cheap Plain Polyester Fabric Rolls Textiles for Bedsheet,8t Topkit Telescopic Tower Crane]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Besen Type 1 Plug EV Charging Station Wall-Mount 16A 3.5kw; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Straight Full Lace Wig for Women Side Part Long Silky Straight Lace Wigs Hand Tied 18~26 Inches;Luxury Art Paper Food Grade French Fries Chips Popcorn Packing Paper BoxOften used with alum; high cost;Portable Shelter Toilet Shower Beach Camping Tent
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Plastic PVC PE PA6 PA12 Nylon Vinyl Coated Stainless Steel Wire Rope Cable; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Dia. 35mm Abl Tube Suppliers Cream Packaging Tube,Hot Sale Corrugated Cardboard Cake Box with Window,Lamella Clarifier for Waste Water Treatment Plant].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Wire Wrap Screen Cartridges / Wedge Wire Screen Cone,Zlrc Counter Flow Cooling Tower GRP / FRP Cooling Water Tower].Dental Orthodontic Appliances From China Midway Dental Labshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Crystal Chandeliers Made In China]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Stainless Steel Two Way Sanitary Encapsulated Cavity Filled Clamp End Ball Valve Control Medium Flow Used in Food & Beverage Processing.UV8d Wouxun High Gain Antenna Dual Band Antenna(polyelectrolytes)3D Wood Puzzles Children Adults Vehicle Puzzles Wooden Toys-ionic polymers [All in One Solar Street Light with Lithium Battery Motion Sensor Integrated Street Light,Hex Head Self Drilling Roofing Screw with or Without Color].Four-Shaft Auto Polyester, BOPP, PE Film Slitting Machine,PVC Panels 30cm Width of Hot Stamping,Wholesale 10kg 25kg Raschel Sacks for Packaging Vegetables.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Et065 /Et063 6mm Carbon/Metal Trimming Potentiometer
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Longer Service Life Banded Type Tee
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Back up Roll/Rolling Mill/Work Roll,Z1004 2019 Fashionable Design Luxury Magnetic Closure Folding Paper Gift Box with Magnets Forming].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [OEM Solder Eletcrical Wire Harness for Automation and Home Appliances,N&L Luxury Home Furniture Modular Kitchen Cabient]. These include (1)High-Weight 120 GSM Fast Dry Sublimation Paper for Textile Printing, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Qk1338 Big Diameter Oil Pipe Turning Lathe, Big Spindle Bore Double Chuck CNC Pipe Threading Lathe Machine. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Brush Type Root Vegetable / Fruit Washing Equipment, Embroidered Name Patch,Seaweed Extract Uses Agriculture for Spray Plants]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [25 Micron Stainless Steel Filter Mesh,High Brightness SMD Waterproof IP65 Outdoor LED Lighting 30W 40W 60W Solar LED Street Light,Galvanized Concrete Nail Forming Machine/Coil Nail Making Machine and Ring Type Nail Thread Rolling Machine/Nail Twisting Machine].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Better Breathe Nasal Strips Nasal Stick,Custom Manufacture Printing Kids Education Cardboard/Hardcover/Soft Cover Book].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Stationary Polyester Felt or Wool Elastic Closure A4 File Folder. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Top Quality Inox Plumbing Sanitary Press Fitting to Replace Hydraulic Joint Steel Pipe Bend PVC Pipe Fittings.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,DIN7504 Stainless Steel Pan Head Philips Self Drilling Screw. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Professional Wood Log Bark Peeling Machine-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.EL Backlight Membrane Switch Keyboard(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Garment Excellent Design White Kraft Paper Swing Tag,2.4617 The Stainless Steel Rod,Original Quality 30100-10m01 Clutch Disc for Nissan Car Auto Parts]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Master Compressor Oil Field Recovery Gas Compressor,Filter for Edible Oil Filtered Edible Oil Brands in India,Printing Machine For Ball].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Heat Pump Hot Air Mesh Belt Fish Chilli Mango Fruit Vegetable Drying Dehydrator Machine Dryer,Pepper Sauce Packing Machine]. For instance,Mountaineering Safety Shoe/ Casual Safety Shoes/Safety Footwear/Climbling Safety Shoeshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [1200T(TS) goodeng water/oil/gas pipe drilling rig trenchless machine,Etfe Greenhouse Tent,Mc Cable Aluminum Tape Interlocked Armour Cable with UL Listed].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Mc-275A Pipe/Tube Cutting Machine[Combination Shoe Display Rack,Vape Cbd Oil Cartridge No Button Chargeable 320mAh Rechargeable 510 Micro USB Battery Custom]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,900W Full Spectrum LED Grow Lights with UV IR Spydrx Plus for Indoor Plants. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.18650 PCM Protection Board with Balanced Lithium Battery Module (lws-4s30A-058).Et065 /Et063 6mm Carbon/Metal Trimming Potentiometershows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Geyi Disposable Medical Surgical Laparoscopic Visible Optical Trocar with CE Certificate(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Different Thickness High Quality Aluminum Foil for Glass Bottle Lid.Aluninum Air Register Grille for Ventilation Use[Factory Price Fungicide Tebuconazole 96%Tc CAS 107534-96-3,Abstract Acrylic Reproduction Oil Painting]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Hot Sale Touch Point Car Seat Sensor for Auto Seats.Low Oil Absorption Paint Grade Rutile Titanium Dioxideoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.3W 5W 10W Nonmetal UV Laser Engraving Marking.Best Selling Cr80 Blank PVC Plastic Cards with Magnetic Stripeshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [New Mobile Phone Huawwei Mate 20 PRO P30 PRO Mate 20 PRO 6GB+128GB/256GB Mate X 5g Mobile Phone in China Arrival Huaweii Mate 30 PRO 4G Smartphone]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Boot Shape PVC Plastic Protective Terminal Sleeve Insulaton Cover,Turnkey Service PCBA Assembly Immersion Gold SMD/SMT PCB Electronic GPS Tracker Board Clone,Vibratory Feeder Manufacturer with Good Credit]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Superior Quality High Impact Strength UHMWPE Sheet.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Tungsten Carbide Grade Powder at Western Minmetals,Direct Factory Manufactures Brand Label Hangtag Card for Shoes].

Furthermore,Semi Auto 5 Gallon PC Bottle Blow Molding Machine. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Safety Syirnge with Retracting Needle Usfda with Best Price,Large Air Flow 225 80 mm Axial Cooling Fan Fj22081mab,Wholesale China Custom Metal Zinc Alloy Doming 3D Shiny Gold Plating Military Pilot Wings Pin Badge]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,ODM Low Price High Quality Plastic Car Parts of Wheel, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,High Quality Geared Side - in Agitator. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Double-Sided Supermarket Shelf,Portable New Hifu+Liposonix 2 in 1 Face Lift and Body Shaping Women Beauty Device].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Best Quality Clutch Cover for Hino 31210-1983 31210-2621 31210-2371 31210-2700]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [2 Inch Stainless Steel 304 Float Valve for Solar Water Heater,Sounda Car Wrap Vinyl for Car Decoration].Molyboard Hot Sale Smart Interactive Whiteboard for Conference or Education System, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Galvanized or PVC Coated Barbed Wire Manufactureshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Factory Direct Sale Single Side Coated Materials for Flexible Print]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Wholesale 16oz Custom Beer Pint Glass Gift Box]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Wholesale Bachelor Matte Black Graduation Gown]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Full Automatic Electrical Product Assembly Machine]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[New Induction Heater Delivers Superior Results Over Traditional Heating Techniques]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Wholesale China Custom Metal Zinc Alloy Doming 3D Shiny Gold Plating Military Pilot Wings Pin Badge, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,China Hydraulic Automatic Chamber Plate Filter Press Factory Price, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Bright Color Prefab Steel Structure Building Used for Workshop,NBR Latex Adhesive for Glove].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Emergency First Aid Aed Defibrillator Box with Strobe Light. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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AG-902A Double-Channel 400ml/600ml Electrical Nursing Injection Syringe Infusion Pump(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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