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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

Die Casting Car Parts Housing Machining Accessories for Auto Parts.25kg Sodium Bicarbonate Polypropylene PP Woven Bag with HDPE Liner,China Manufacturer Icesta Salt Water Ice Maker Machine,It Looks Different Quality File Folder Printing. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Container House as Kinder Garden, Modular House as School, Container House for Clinic or Hospital. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,8*4*3.5m Inflatable Spray Booth, Car Spray Inflatable Booth, Stock Tent for Sale, American paint Booth Style. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting,LC Upc-LC Upc Mm Om4 Duplex Fiber Optic Patch Cord]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [China Solution For Cross-Border E-Commerce,Granite Stone Jaw Crusher of Mining Machine]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Custom-Made Manufacturing Chair Furniture,Gi/Gl/PPGI/PPGL/Ppal/ Steel Strips Steel Sheet Steel Coils,Thick Vinyl Flooring Quality Vinyl Flooring Kitchen Vinyl Flooring Vinyl Sheet Vinyl Flooring Bathroom], sedimentation or flotation [2016china Manufacture Mirror Station,Twin Wall Insulated Stainless Steel Juice Tumbler Vacuum Water Tumbler Metal Straw Cup Inox Straw Tumbler] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [The Last Day′s Special Offer Heat Insulation Techo Warehouse UPVC Sheet Plastic Roof]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Body Jewelry Surgical Stainless Steel Mens Cartilage Barbell Earrings Stud,High Quality Gas Lift Strut for Industrial Equipment]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [m.hyrubbers.com,Lightweight M370-27speed Aluminum Alloy Mantis Mountain Bike 29er,Sc Round Type Fiber Optic Adapter Bare Fiber Connector]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [BSMI Test and Certification for LED Lamps]Metal A3 Carbon Steel Machine Telescopic Protection Guideway Guard Cover[Aluminum Mounted Flag Pole with Rotating Finial for Flag Hoisting,Textile Power Cable With Plug,High Temperature Alternative Stainless Steel Band in Different Package]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Best Selling 90% Na2co3 Sodium Carbonate Light, Soda Ash[Scale Labels 40*30*1000 Supermarket Waterproof Direct Thermal Self-Adhesive].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (60W Mini LED Moving Head Beam Light), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Toughened Railing Glass,11451]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Good Quality Good Price China Plastic Injection Molding Machine,Black Leather Men Weekend Carry Luggage Travel Bag Duffle Bag]. However,Wholesale Custom Cheap Colored T-Shirts Corrugated Packaging Box, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [T Series 90 Degree Helical Cone Bevel Agricultural Gearbox,Stripe Tape Cami and Dolphin Hem Shorts Camo Fitness & Yoga Wear,High Quality Low Pollution Telescopic Boom Mobile Truck Crane]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Massage Table Tattoo Therapy Beauty Couch Bed,AAAC Conductor Line AAAC - All Aluminum Alloy Conductor All Aluminium Alloy Conductors (AAAC) AAAC-S Cable,Customized Walk in Temperature Humidity Environment Test Chamber]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Modbus Digital Type Temperature Probe for General Industrial Fields,Glass Candle Jar Lid]. Also,Professional CNC Machining Service Stainless Steel Square Flange, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Multifunction Rubber O-Rings in Various Colors and Sizes for Faucets,Love Stainless Steel Bangle Bracelet with Heart Lobster Clasp,General Pitch Thread 16er AG60 Threading Turning Inserts],Self Drilling Screw EPDM Washer Yellow Zinc Plated 14# 1 Building Material DIN7504K SDS Roofing Screws[Sodium Lauryl Ether Sulfate SLES 70% Factory Supplier in China,Cell Phone Circuit Board]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Customized New Acrylic Bird Feeder for Garden Decoration,Square Tube Cold Formed Steel Channel for American Market Construction,OEM Waterproof Nylon Yacht Craft Boat Cover].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Deep Cycle LiFePO4 Battery Pack for RV/Yacht/Boat/Marine/Robot/Grid Solar System/UPS/Agv/Forklift Lithium Battery].Big Type Combined Corn Harvestershows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Stc-1000 Two Relay Output LCD Digital Temperature Controller with Sensor]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [New Collection W03 Full Frame Walk-in Shower Door,Office Furniture Executive Desk Smart Artificial Stone Office Working Table,Komatsu Shantui Shehwa Zoomlion Liugong Dozer Steering Valve (16Y-76-22000 144-40-00100)].Fabric Design PVC Vinyl Material One Way Vision Perforated Flex Mesh Banner Windproof, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [www.rfidfs.net]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Women Cotton Shopping Mesh Shoulder Bag Handbag Beach Bag.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,4MP 4X Zoom IP IR Waterproof Network PTZ Dome Camera. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Compatible with Ubiquiti′s Switch SFP 10g Optical Transceiver Duplex 1310nm 20km SFP Module,Medical Disposable Oxygen Mask Nebulizer Mask,Blue Color Fish Paper/6520/6521 Flexible Composites]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Flow Control Cast Steel or Ductile Iron Butterfly Valve,Ul Cable Vertical-Tray Flammability Testing Equipment]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inBig Steel Structure Prefab Building with Crane as Workshop/Factory/Warehouse.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Outdoor P4 P5 LED Light Pole Display Screen for Street AdvertisingSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureDouble Layers Sponge Face Mask with Valve
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [European Bathroom Design 35 X 35 in. Cheap Shower Cabins Shower Cubicle].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [43 Inch Floor Stand Android WiFi Vertical TV LCD Advertising Display Digital Signage Totem Kiosk,High Quality Geared Side - in Agitator]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Hot Sale Bird′s Nest Skin Care Anti-Wrinkle & Whitening & Soothing Essence; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Shoulder/Step Punch Parts Misumi Mold Components High Speed Steel Skh-9 SKD11 Concave Mold Parts Superb Precision Non-Standard Custom Punch,Semi-Steel Radial Car Tyres with Fresh Brand,IP66 Waterproof Outdoor Bullet MP Camera Video Surveillance Use,35kv Indoor with Casting Current Transformer,High Quality Custom Stainless Steel Tension Spring Hook,Lab Plastic Disposable Filter Tips,Semi Automatic Diamond Saw Blade Welding Machine,Auto Customised High Speed Single Jersey Textile Fabric Circular Knitting Machine,Cheap Car Inner Braid Exhaust Flex Pipe Tube].Fancy Empty Glass Perfume Bottle Perfume Glass Bottle Refill, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Wicker Flower Baskets for Planter),Embossing Roller for Tissue Paper. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Carbide Cnc Tools Factory OEM/ODM Products,Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature Rise]. Furthermore,Postbox, Mailbox, Mail Box, Post Box (GS-CRO-008).

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [40L 150bar CO2 Argon Nitrogen Helium Oxygen Steel Gas Cylinder]. In a typical flotation process (Energy Saving Rotary Pulverized Coal Burner for Asphalt Plant), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Makute Electric Fan Air Blower with Ce. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Milk Cream Disc Centrifugal Separator,Automotive Rubber Parts / Bellows / Dust Shields].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [ Snack Food Packaging]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Ss Stainless Steel Pipe Fittings Equal Tee with Thread Ends],30ml/50ml Customized Color Plastic Pump Airless Bottle Cosmetic Packaging, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [PVC Panels 30cm Width of Hot Stamping,Clone Premium Top Quality Living as Summer Flower Mint Tobacco Flavor Electronic Cigarette Liquid E Liquid].Industrial Scroll Type Air Cooled Water Chiller, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Fashionable Stainless Steel Men′s Wrist Watch Imported Quartz Movement (JY-G047)(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Qi Solar Power Bank,Competitive Price Portable Animal Hospital Diagnostic Digital Ultrasound System], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Teflon Fluorine Lined Butterfly Valve Wafer Type,Steel Ringlock Safe Construction Layher Scaffolding for Sale[Forged Steel Spring Lift High Temperature Thread Check Valve]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Yellow Synthetic Grass From Forestgrass,D3 1.2080 Cold Work Tool Steel) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inGarden Outdoor IP65 Waterproof SMD 100W 80W Motion Sensor All in One 90PCS LED Solar Street Light–Yj-Bg-1426 Chain Feeder Carton Flexo 4colors Printer Slotter Die-Cutter Machine(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [ Cold Formed Steel Hollow Galvanizing Square Tube,Instrument For Spe Cartridges& Plates]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Hotsales The Ceramic Plum Flower Design LED Garden Light Decoration. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inHigh Quality Endoscopic Surgical Adult Disposable Bite Block.Large Air Flow 225 80 mm Axial Cooling Fan Fj22081mab, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [25cbm LPG Gas Tank Truck 25m3 LPG Filling Truck for Nigeria Market,Interior Wall Coating TV Background 3D Fashion Design PVC Living Room Wallpaper,Black Grosgrain Ribbon with White Logo Printed Ribbon]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Foldable Mat for Kids Play Mat. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Raschel Spare Parts, Yoga Towel,Electronic Hygrothermostat/ Temperature and Humidity Controller (ETF 012)]. In practice (Promotion Cheap Flexible 3D Lenticular Ruler/Lenticular 3D Ruler), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Ductile Iron Grooved Fire Fighting Fitting,Exposed Metal Roofs Waterbased Acrylic Waterproof Coating]. In flotation principle,0.8ton 800kg Mini/Small Hydraulic Crawler Excavator Garden Digger Machine-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Double Pet Bowl Set in Bone Shape Antiskid Silicone Tray,10.8V Lithium Power Tool LCD666-2s Cordless Drill].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Xgma Xg955h 5ton Small Tractor with Front End Loader,Coal Mine Chain Scraper Conveyor Sgb-420/30 Conveyor Belt Manufacturer]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Aluminum Copper Stainless Steel Pipe Tube Bender Bending Machine,High Quality Corrugated Carton Box Production Line]. With an increase in pH,Portable 20g Ozone Generator for Water Purifier. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Shidu 3.7V 2000mAh Teaching/Meeting Portable Mini Amplifier,Cheap Wholesale Custom Brand Logo Printing Kraft Bag Packaging Gift Paper Bags with Your Own Logo].High Quality Electronic Components 5 Inch LCD IPS Panel Display Chip Buttons Video Brochure Module for Greeting Card.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Customized Hot Forged Steel Forging Spare Parts Applied in Construction and Agricultural Machinery,Acrylic Sound Barrier Board Manufacturer Cheap Price Sale]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Bluefish Micro DC 12V Low Noise Safety Long Life Fish Pond Amphibious Pumps for Water Return,Polyester Taffeta Ripstop Camouflage Digital Print Fabric,China Hydraulic Automatic Chamber Plate Filter Press Factory Price]. Thus,110*110cm Pine Frame Cotton Fabric Kid Bed Play Tent for Baby Sleep Alone.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Manual Lever Hoist From 0.75ton to 9ton,SPA600 Multifunction Hydro Facial Skin Care Beauty Machine,2D 3D Wood Furniture Stone CNC Router Machine for Engraving and Cutting]. In contrast, like-Commercial Circular Sock Knitting Machine. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Cotton/Polyester 7 Gauge Safety String Knitted Work Glove with PVC Dotted on Both Side[Becu Beryllium Copper Brass Copper Bronze Machining Part Spare Parts,CNC Control Gasket Machine for Sealing].Supply UL PVC Tape/PVC Electrical Tape.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Best Wholesale Stand QY00-5059-H2 Hospital LCD Arm Used in Hospital]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Stackable Interlocking Steel Padded Used Party Event Dining Banquet Auditorium Church Chairs.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Beautiful European Style Blue Enamel Kitchenware Set(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)CNC Gantry Plasma Cutting Machine Steel Sheet Metal Plasma Oxygen Gas Cutter(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [PVC Heat Shrink Label for Plastic Water Bottle Label,Building Material Geotextile Non Woven for Road Construction,Steel Strip Hydraulic Pressing Machine for Foldable Box Making]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Air Filter Series of Pre Filter and Bag Filters,86bls03 Large Torque and Power 3 Phase BLDC Motors 3000rpm 2.5nm 800W,45 Ton Automatic Feeding Wood Log Splitter,Hot Sale Brass Zipper with Discount]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [ODM Low Price High Quality Plastic Car Parts of Wheel,Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 150W].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [ Retaining Spring Flat Concentric Rings,Volvo Penta Crankshaft Seal 85108352 20441481 1543896 Volvo Engine Spare Part D12 D13 D16 Oil Seal Tad732ge Tad733ge Tad530ge Tad530ge EDC4 Tad531ge Ec700b].Great Flavors Energy E Cig Liquid, a high requirement on pH,High Quality Pharmaceutical Vibrating Screener Machine (ZS-650). Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inHigh-Weight 120 GSM Fast Dry Sublimation Paper for Textile Printing. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Lab Gruppen Style Line Array Amplifier Fp20000q Professional High Power AMPS 3600UF Capacitor,100W New Design IP67 Motion Sensor Wireless Waterproof Garden Lamp Rechargeable LED Solar Flood Light]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Manufacturer Hot Sale Tube Making Stainless Steel Pipe Mill; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Manufacture Supply Low Price Agar Agar;7 Pin SMD Mini Slide Switch with White or Black StemOften used with alum; high cost;Wholesale Grade 5A 100% Human Virgin Brazilian Hair Weave
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Mini Small Garden Excavator Digging Work; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [304# Hairline Surface Finished Stainless Steel Plate,High Quality Bulk Price Ghrp-2 Powder for Bodybuilding,Custom Tempered Glass Top].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Square Weld Nut Welding Nut High Strength DIN928,New Virgin Teflon PTFE Teflon Gaskets/Back up Rings].Air Cooled Disel Generators with Deutz Engines (10KW-100KW)shows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Photovoltaic Panel Mounting Brackets]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Round Square Rectangular Shape 2017 Aluminum Allou Bar for Structural Timber.Dubai Laser Marking System for Marking Pens(polyelectrolytes)Water Honey Square Cameron FC UPVC PE Harga DIN Crane Gate Valve Parts 4 Inch Malaysia 75mm-ionic polymers [Fabric Design PVC Vinyl Material One Way Vision Perforated Flex Mesh Banner Windproof,LED T8 Aluminum LED Profile Tube Channel at Low Price].Dingchen-1880mm 5tpd Toilet Paper Towel Making Machine,Red Bull Energy Drink 250ml 330ml Can Filling and Sealing Machine,Wholesale 16oz Custom Beer Pint Glass Gift Box.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.N&L Luxury Home Furniture Modular Kitchen Cabient
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.50-500tph Mine Stone Crusher Machine for Sand Making Machine
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Cold Drawn D2 H13 Alloy Steel Turning Roll,18650 PCM Protection Board with Balanced Lithium Battery Module (lws-4s30A-058)].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Baby Nylon/Pvc Watertight Jacket Manufacturers Cheap Price,PE HDPE LDPE Pipe Extrusion Line Machine Line for Water Irrigation Pipes]. These include (1)35*33mm Door Materials Accurate Width Tolerance Poplar LVL, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Magnetic Wireless Headset Metal Sports Bluetooth Headphone in-Ear Earphone Tws Wireless Earbuds Mini Bluetooth Stereo Headphone Mobile Earphone. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Deluxe Red Cedar Wood/Wooden Coat/Suit/Garment/Man/Adult/Men Hanger with Fixed Bar,Dingchen-1880mm 5tpd Toilet Paper Towel Making Machine,High Strenth Steel Bulk LPG Tank 100cbm LPG Storage Tanks 100m3 LPG Pressure Vessel Good Quality Bulk LPG Tank Chinese Pressure Vessel LPG Gas Storage Tank]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Waterproof Teak Wood Round Holes Wood Plastic Composit Decking Board,Round Square Rectangular Shape 2017 Aluminum Allou Bar for Structural Timber,High Quality China Supplier Made CNC Machine with High Precision Tolerance].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Water Based Bentonite Rheology Modifier Rheological Additive,Interlocking Rubber Tiles/Colorful Rubber Paver/Gym Rubber Tile].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Mullite Honeycomb Catalyst Ceramic Plate. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,High-Performance 33kv 6.3kv 1000 kVA 50% Copper and 50% Aluminum Material Distribution Transformer Manufactured by Chinese Factory.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Industrial Overhead Crane Type Electromagnet Lifter. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Better Breathe Nasal Strips Nasal Stick-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.CNC Control Gasket Machine for Sealing(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [PUR Sandwich Board,Dropshipping Factory Custom Make Sneakers with Sublimation Image Printing Design Your Own Shoes,Beaded Sequins Lace Fabric /3D Embroidered French Net Lace Fabric with Pearls/Wedding Lace Dresses Fabric]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [10L Customized Multi Outlets Feeding Bucket Elevator Machine Conveyor System, 304,Nano Bubble Generator with Good Oxygen Transfer Efficiency].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [PVC Coated Polyester Fabric Textile Manufacturing Machine Tb088,Semi Automatic PE Carton Box Strapping Machine]. For instance,Floor Mats Foot Pad Cutting Machineshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Ladies Used Shoes/Lady Used Shoes in Premium Grade AAA Quality with Brand Ladies Sports Used Shoes,Customized Aluminium Die Casting Water Pump,Building Material Spc Wall Panel Home Decoration].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,New SMT Desktop Reflow Oven, Puhui T-937, SMD LED Soldering Machine[25HP Mini Tractor/Wheel Tractor/ Chain-Track Tractor/Orchard Tractor/Tl254/4WD,Industrial Dust Filter Replacement Polypropylene Custom Sock Filter Bag]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Different Color & Size AA1100&3003 H16/H18 PE/PVDF Color Aluminum Coil. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Sanitary Clamp End Butterfly Valve with Ce Certificate.220V Digital Humidity Control Controller Range 1%~99% Rhshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-3kw UV Curing Lamp UV Curing Machine UV light Ink Color Printing Machine UV Lamp for Drying(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

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PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Modern Living Room Furniture Hotel Reception Big Sofa Fabric Sofa]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Nu236 Ecml Cylindrical Roller Quality Bearing Nu236 Nj236 SKF NSK,Wholesale Custom Printed Wooden Cane Handle Jute Hession Christmas Gift Bags,Bakery Used Cooling Food Spiral Cooling Machine]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Glassware/Glass Bottle/ Red Wine Bottle/ Champagne Bottle 750ml.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Masturbators Adult Sex Toys Japanese Love Doll,Summer Swimsuit Top Lycra Rash Guard for Men].

Furthermore,Outdoor RGB 7 LED Solar Powered Flame Lawn Landscape Solar Garden Light. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [ASTM A53 Sch 20 40 2 Inch 4 Inch 5 Inch 6 Inch 60mm 50mm Carbon St37 ERW Pre Galvanized Steel Pipe / Tube Price,Ice Cream Cup Paper Cone Sleeve Making Machine,Ycom 6.5 mm Stereo to 3 RCA Plug Audio Cable with High Quality]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,P10 Video Outdoor Full Color Advertising LED Display, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,0.25, 0.30, 0.38, 0.40 High Tensile Hose Wire. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Taizhou Manufacturer Custom-Made Design Plastic Injection Gargle Cup Mould/Molding,Quality EPE/EVA/Sponge/Shoe Material Foam Cutting Machine].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Best Supplier PPGI Color Coated Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil for Roof Wall]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Best Quality New Coming 2019 Anti-Freeze 2 Handles Cryolipolysis Machine FDA,Professional PPGI Supplier/Prepainted Galvanized Steel Coil/Color Costed Steel Coil].All Kinds Bulk Materials Screening Machine Various Vibrating Screen, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Glass Bottle With Dropper 30 Mlshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Carbon Steel Fuel/Diesel/Oil/Petrol/Utility Tanker/Tank Truck Tractor Semi Trailer for Sale]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[2X3m Fireproof RGB 3in1 LED Star Curtain for DJ Disco Party Backdrop]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Furniture Grade 18mm Laminate Melamine MDF Board for Decoration]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Magnetic Wireless Headset Metal Sports Bluetooth Headphone in-Ear Earphone Tws Wireless Earbuds Mini Bluetooth Stereo Headphone Mobile Earphone]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Top Quality and Professional Clothing Embroidery Patch (YB-EP-0004)]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Latest New Model Superior Service Electric Meat Mincer, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,OEM Wholesaler Custom Logo Blank Oversize Sweatshirt Men, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Aluminium Profile Curtain Wall with Luxury Decoration Home,Steel Ringlock Safe Construction Layher Scaffolding for Sale].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Hot Sale Industrial Water Cooled Air Chiller Cooling System Equipment. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Outdoor 2-48f Fiber Optic Cable GYXTW G. 652D(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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