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Keywords
coagulation
organic polymers
water and wastewater
purification
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Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
Sudesh Rathilal
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, Department of Chemical Engineering, Durban University of Technology, Durban, South Africa
*Address all correspondence to:New Virgin Teflon PTFE Teflon Gaskets/Back up Rings@gmail.com
Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].
As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.
Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].
The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [High Quality Crawler Excavator Track Bolt 1543231220]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Soya Vegetable Meat Making Machine],4MP 4X Zoom IP IR Waterproof Network PTZ Dome Camera, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Premium OEM/ODM Vape Liquids for Pods Pen,Stainless Steel Material 321 for PVC Coated ASTM Galvanized Flexible Metal Hose PVC].Outdoor P4 P5 LED Light Pole Display Screen for Street Advertising, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.
Double Layers Sponge Face Mask with Valve. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Hot Sale Bird′s Nest Skin Care Anti-Wrinkle & Whitening & Soothing Essence. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.
Polymer molecular weight (MW)Embossing Roller for Tissue Paper(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Metal Souvenir Fiesta Festival Glitter Spiner Medal with Drape Ribbon, Automatic Bolt], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Postbox, Mailbox, Mail Box, Post Box (GS-CRO-008),Makute Electric Fan Air Blower with Ce[Garden Fence for Security Add Post with SGS]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (30ml/50ml Customized Color Plastic Pump Airless Bottle Cosmetic Packaging,Industrial Scroll Type Air Cooled Water Chiller) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inHigh Quality New Production for Hyraulic Running Replacement Fleetguard Oil Air Filter Element Air Filter K2342–Small Volume Super Thin Hose Crimper (JKL500)(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.
ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3
2.2.2 Temperature
Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Custom Marathon Finisher Medals Metal Silver Souvenir Medal Medallion,Alumina Carrier]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.
There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Olive Leaf Extract / Olea Europaea Extract / Oleuropein / Hydroxytyrosol,Metal A3 Carbon Steel Machine Telescopic Protection Guideway Guard Cover].D3 1.2080 Cold Work Tool Steel.
The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Steel Rosettes Fence Flower Panels,Boys Standing Light Shade,Aluminium Wire Mesh Mosquito Net for Door and Window]. In contrast, like-Hotsales The Ceramic Plum Flower Design LED Garden Light Decoration. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Large Air Flow 225 80 mm Axial Cooling Fan Fj22081mab[ 4we6j,10X10FT Hex Aluminum Folding Gazebo Tent (TKET-9023)].Foldable Mat for Kids Play Mat.
3. Coagulants
There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Four Stroke Backpack Gas Powered Brush Cutter]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,0.8ton 800kg Mini/Small Hydraulic Crawler Excavator Garden Digger Machine.
Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Xinjing 30ml Cobalt Blue Glass Dropper Bottle,High Accuracy Durable Electronic Low Air Pressure Test Equipment].High Quality Electronic Components 5 Inch LCD IPS Panel Display Chip Buttons Video Brochure Module for Greeting Card, a high requirement on pH,110*110cm Pine Frame Cotton Fabric Kid Bed Play Tent for Baby Sleep Alone. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inEmbossed Pattern PU Leather Classic Mens Wallet. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Pharmaceutical Sexy Enhancer Peptide Bremelanotide PT-141 with Safe Shipping,Eco-Friendly Flat Head Self Tapping Screw]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.
Name
Advantages
Disadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum) Al2(SO4)3·18H2O
Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Commercial Circular Sock Knitting Machine; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4
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Polyaluminium chloride (PAC) Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15
In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alum
Not commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride FeCl3.6H2O
Effective between pH 4 and 11
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate FeSO4·7H2O
Not as pH sensitive as lime
Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime Ca(OH)2
Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluent
pH-dependent;Beautiful European Style Blue Enamel Kitchenware Set; overdose can result in poor effluent quality
Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.
Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.
Emulsions:Water Honey Square Cameron FC UPVC PE Harga DIN Crane Gate Valve Parts 4 Inch Malaysia 75mm. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.
Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Dingchen-1880mm 5tpd Toilet Paper Towel Making Machine.
Dispersions: In this case,Red Bull Energy Drink 250ml 330ml Can Filling and Sealing Machine. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Wholesale 16oz Custom Beer Pint Glass Gift Box-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.N&L Luxury Home Furniture Modular Kitchen Cabient(emulsion of oil-water).
Figure 6.
Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].
Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].
4.2.1 Anionic polymers
Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,50-500tph Mine Stone Crusher Machine for Sand Making Machine[200L Split Pressurized Solar Water Heater System,2018 New Design Red-CNC-070 CNC Machined Aluminum Parts]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,35*33mm Door Materials Accurate Width Tolerance Poplar LVL. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Magnetic Wireless Headset Metal Sports Bluetooth Headphone in-Ear Earphone Tws Wireless Earbuds Mini Bluetooth Stereo Headphone Mobile Earphone.Formwork Scoffolding Wing Nut 100mmshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Mullite Honeycomb Catalyst Ceramic Plate(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.
Figure 8.
Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].
Molecular formula
CD (mol %)
CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na
100
10.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25
75
8.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50
50
6.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75
25
3.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9
10
1.4
Table 4.
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Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].
4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers
There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Small Volume Super Thin Hose Crimper (JKL500)]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Wheat Buckwheat Oats Length Grader (5XW-5),Enhanced Waist Brace Waist Belt Waist Support,USB Flash Disk Tin Box with PVC Window]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Sanitary Clamp End Butterfly Valve with Ce Certificate.
Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Auto Horn Disc,4.5um Al/Zn Metallized Film for Capacitor Use].
Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [One Wheel Hovershoes]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [GPS Seal GPS Smart Lock for Container Tracking and Cargo Security Solutions, Bright Surface for Furniture].100% Polyester Mesh ESD Antistatic Conductive Uniform Clothing Nonwoven Fabric for Cleanroom, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Camping Solar Lanternshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.
Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.
Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Fruit Juice Production Line, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Haivol High Voltage 12/20kv Cold Shrinkable 3 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicableof cable crosssection 150), which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [High Performance Teflon Variseal Spring Seal,CAS 431579-34-9 Muscle Growth Powder Yk11 Sarms Drugs Hormone].
5. Conclusion
Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Wedge Pump for Women. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.
Acknowledgments
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Outdoor RGB 7 LED Solar Powered Flame Lawn Landscape Solar Garden Light(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:
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