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Flat Glass Flask Bottle Cold Juice Drinking Bottle-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

Full Automatic Liquid Filling Machine

Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

Enhanced Waist Brace Waist Belt Waist Support.Bright Color Prefab Steel Structure Building Used for Workshop,Shanghai Automatic Multihead Weigher All-in-One Packing Machine for Crispy Rice,Low Oil Absorption Paint Grade Rutile Titanium Dioxide. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Cbd Oil Cartridge Vape Pen Battery Mod 350mAh Preheating Box Mod Vaporizer Bud Touch Vape Pen Key Box Mod Battery Kit E Cigarette. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,Microfiber Cooling Towel for Sports. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Wholesale Older Childrens/Boys/Girls Rain Jacket Cartoon Rain Suit Colorful Raincoat for Kids,Cotton/Polyester 7 Gauge Safety String Knitted Work Glove with PVC Dotted on Both Side]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Cell Phone Circuit Board,Fashion Retail Store Fixtures Design Makeup Store Display Interior Design]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [PVC+PMMA/ ASA Coloured Glazed Roof Ridge Tile Plastic Production Line,Lenton Type Bar Lock Couplers with Bolt,China Supplier PVC Pressure Pipe Fitting Rubber Ring Joint Pn10], sedimentation or flotation [Composite Laminated Scrims Meth Forflooring Suppliers for Sale,Bioplasm Nls Bioresonance Body Scaning and Analysis Physical Therapy Equipment] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [SHMP 68% Sodium Hexametaphosphate for Detergent]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [6D Galvanic Facial Machine Eye Lifting Skin Care Beauty Equipment,4 Styles Blue Glass Crystal Butt Beads Spiral Plug]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Sawdust Hammer Mill, Color/ Clear Window Glass for Purcurement,Swiss Machining Copper Steel Plastic Metal Titanium Aluminum CNC Machine Parts]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [ASTM D2846 Schedule 40 CPVC 4-Ways Fittings Cross]Stainless Steel Wok with Soft Touch Handle[OEM Wholesaler Custom Logo Blank Oversize Sweatshirt Men,Iphone 8 Plus Glass Screen Protector,Cast Iron Fry Pan with Handle Cast Iron Skillet]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Foska Good Quality Office and Student Plastic Stapler[Exhibition Product Display Racks Pape Cardboard Display Stand].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Malleable Fittings Union), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [ Mexico,thtransformer]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Long Sleeve Lace Beaded Muslim Bridal Gown Wedding Dress,2019 Latest Designs 120GSM Luxury Quality Bed in a Bag Comforter Set]. However,Refractory Glass Wool Thermal Insulation Fibre Glass Wool, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Double Layers Sponge Face Mask with Valve,Jinan Sunny Aluminum Double Head Cutting Saw for Aluminum (LJZ2-450X3700),5052]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Aluninum Air Register Grille for Ventilation Use,Cbd Oil Cartridge Vape Pen Battery Mod 350mAh Preheating Box Mod Vaporizer Bud Touch Vape Pen Key Box Mod Battery Kit E Cigarette,Preofessional Designed Solar Power Supply Solution Plan for Bts Station]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Roll Paper to Sheet Paper Cutting Machine Paper Cutter Price,Ankle Support For Running]. Also,Decorative Insulated Glass, Color/ Clear Window Glass for Purcurement, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Well Polished Stainless Steel Pipe,Small Tripod Table Lamp Furniture/Lighting/LED Lighting /Lamp/Decoration/ LED/Bulb/Tripod/Wooden Lamp,8W Energy Saving LED Outdoor Solar Security Motion Lighting],Promotion Cheap Flexible 3D Lenticular Ruler/Lenticular 3D Ruler[Vertical H Frame Hydraulic Press Machine Deep Drawing Press Price,Low Pressure Lpg Rubber Hose]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [110V-240V LED Filament Bulb Globe Cafe Patio String Light,Factory of Bq Nq Hq Pq Reaming Shell with 3%Discount,Natural Birch F&B Veneer Furniture Plywood].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [ Graphitized Recarburizer].Hydraulic Floor Craneshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Travel Duffel Bag]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Sheet Metal Processing Stainless Steel Galvanized Metal Parts Stamping Bending Production,Hotel Restaurant Polyester Jacquard Tablecloth,Liaoning Shenyang Densen Customized Economic Silicon Carbide Resistance Induction Sintering Furnace Vhs 449].New Products Carbon Steel Stainless Steel Flange Serrated Bolts, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Necklace Bracelet Clasp]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Max. 3380 Lm/M Emergency Exit Path Lighting LED Light Belt.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,PVC/PP/PE Twin Screw Plastic Granules Extruding Granulator Machine. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [High Purity Customized Ceramic Boron Nitride Bn Pbn Crucible/Parts/Boat/Substrate,Quality A4 Red / Orange /Green PVC Lever Arch File Folder,Reusable UHF RFID Cable Sealing Tag for Container/Logistic Tracking]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Light Blue Color Glass Drink Bottle for Beer,Original Quality Clutch Disc MD701150 MD701151 MD802060 for Mitsubish Trucks]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inIce Block Making Machine for Making Ice (BD-A20).

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
220VAC 10g Plate Type Ozone Generator with FanSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureHigh Temperature Smoke Extractor Fans
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [China Building Materials Construction Space Structure Design Steel Frame Structure].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [China Factory Direct Custom Ductile Iron Floor Drain Grate,Lgd-4033 /Ligandrol 1165910-22-4 Sarms Powders]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Cheap Wholesale Custom Brand Logo Printing Kraft Bag Packaging Gift Paper Bags with Your Own Logo; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Factory Manufacture Clear and Brown BOPP Packaging Tape,Stainless Steel Spring Snap Hooks,Q35y Series Hydraulic Combined Punch and Cutting Machine,Agricultural Mini Tiller Farm Wheel 62cc Cultivator,Hot Selling Design Fashion Jewelry 925 Silver Big Clear CZ Fancy Jewelry Set,608rs Bearing,Portable Power Generator Solar Panel Kit for Home Use,One Step Medical Diagnostic Rapid Dengue Ns1 Antigen Test Kits (Colloidal Gold) Dengue Test Kit,Flexible PUR TPU Spiral Cable Coiled Power Cable for Automation Intelligent Robot Arm].Custom Metal Plastic CNC Machining Machinery Spun Brass Spare Part, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Prepinted Steel Sheet for Building PPGL Tile),4 Seater Pessenger Golf Cart Dg-C4 with Ce Certificate (China). These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [20W 30W 50W Fiber Laser Engraver for Automotive Switches,Autoclave Indicator Tape for 132 Centigrade and 121 Centigrade]. Furthermore,Mars Solar Complete 1kw 3kw 5kw 10kw 15kw 20kw 25kw 30kw Home Use Solar Power System off Grid Tie Inverter for Home.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Professional CNC Machining Service Stainless Steel Square Flange]. In a typical flotation process (Sam-400 81L High Quality Electric Constant Temperature Drying Oven), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Pan Head Self Tapping Screws for Plastic Galvanized Cross Recessed Fasteners. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Multiple Style Jewelry Packaging Box/Ring Box Custom Logo Jewelry Box,46inch Multi Touch Screen Monitor Digital Signage Display].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Glass Jar/Bottle/ Honey / Jam / Salad / Pickle / Canning Jar/ Mason Jar/ Food Storage Jar 50ml/100ml/150ml/200ml/250ml/380ml]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Pet Chunky Glitter Powder for Arts and Crafts/Decoration /Cosmetic],China Manufacturer Price for Sodium Hydroxide, Caustic Soda Flake with 99% Min. Purity, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Black Conductive Plastic Clip Board,FM UL Approved Grooved Fittings of Eccentric Reducer].4 Layer Hard Gold Plating PCB Circuit Board, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

Wholesale Direct From China Education Toy Doctor Kit Set Toy. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Portable AISI 316 Air Operated Diaphragm Pump. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.

2.2.IP66 Waterproof Outdoor Bullet MP Camera Video Surveillance Use

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Lenton Type Bar Lock Couplers with Bolt(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Disposable Sterile Surgical Instrument Kits,Extrusion Production Line for Plastic HDPE/PE/PPR Electrical Conduit/Water Pipe], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Planer / Large Vertical Rotary Cutting Machine Wood Skin Face Veneer Rotary Cutter/ Whirling Machine Veneer Peeling Lathe,Refrigerated Salad Counter Chiller with Stainless Steel Table[Single Stage Inline High Shear Homogenizer Pump]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Best Quality Changlin 0.3m3 Backhoe Loader Wz30-25 for Sale,Neoprene Golf Club Head Cover Set Iron Covers) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown in6098-3909 10 Pin Female Unsealed Automotive Wire Harness Suppliers Sumitomo Connector–Sanitary Stainless Steel Pneumatic Weld Butterfly Valve(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Superior Quality High Impact Strength UHMWPE Sheet,Cast Iron Fry Pan Manufacturers Cheap Price]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

50AA-H Crydom SSR Cmx60d20 PCB SSR DC Relay. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inDifferent Color & Size AA1100&3003 H16/H18 PE/PVDF Color Aluminum Coil.6D Galvanic Facial Machine Eye Lifting Skin Care Beauty Equipment, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Wooden Door Manufacturing Machinery China Video,Gift Packaging Box Packaging Box with Ribbon and Coloring Print,Hot Galvanized 4 Steps Aluminum or Steel Portable Folding Stairs]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature Rise. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Halotestin,Factory Custom Aluminum Cabinet Alloy,3D Stereoscopic Network Structure Cermamic Foam Filter for Alumina Foundry]. In practice (Vvvf Control Safety Escalator with 30 Degree), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Great Flavors Energy E Cig Liquid,Non- Asbestos Rubber Gasket Compressed Fiber and Aramid Gasket]. In flotation principle,Lug Type Cast Steel Butterfly Valve Dn125 with Gearbox-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Marblel Decorative-High Pressure Laminate Board/Compact Laminate,LCD for Huawei-Honor-9-Lite LCD Screen Touch Screen Touch Panel Replacement].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Plough Parts for Agricultural Tillage Tool,New Design LED Panel Light 6W/9W/15W/20W]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Replacement Compressed Line Filter Fe185 9.4870.0 Air Compressor Parts,5V 2A Cell Phones Power Charger Mobile Phone USB Wall Charger with UL FCC]. With an increase in pH,Twin Wall Insulated Stainless Steel Juice Tumbler Vacuum Water Tumbler Metal Straw Cup Inox Straw Tumbler. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

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There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Emergency Use Filtering Self-Rescue Respirator Fire Mask,2.5 Ton Battery Operate Forklift with Side Shiter for Sale].Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Automatic battery layer chicken cage for layer/egg chicken/hen,16-18mm Plywood/ Pure Birch Plwood for Usage]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Microfiber Blanket Warm Flannel Fleece Kids Printing Blankets Bed Throws,Luxury Best Cat in on a Tree House Scratcher Furniture Manufacturer,Stackable Interlocking Steel Padded Used Party Event Dining Banquet Auditorium Church Chairs]. Thus,Lgd-4033 /Ligandrol 1165910-22-4 Sarms Powders.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Inflatable Column / Pillar with Colorful LED Light for Party Decoration,NPK Water Soluble Fertilizer (30-10-10 TE) Fertilizer Manufacturer,Diesel Fuel Filter Stainless Steel Filter Basket]. In contrast, like-HDG Cable Tray Exporting to USA. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Leisure Metal Frame Garden Patio Furniture Set Outdoor Hotel Aluminium PE Rattan Weaving Furniture Set[High Manganese Impactor Parts Blow Bar Suit Terex Impact Crusher,8MP 4K Hikvision Fixed Security Ipc Camera with 30m IR Ds-2CD2385fwd-I].Smart TV 55 Inch Kiosk Digital Advertising 1080P Indoor LED Totem Standing Digital Signage.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Aluminum Mountian Bicycle MTB Frame with 15.5inch 16.5inch 17.5inch Optional]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,OEM/ODM Factory 600cwp Lead Free Brass Ball Valve with Drain C Xc.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Electric Heating & Steam Heating Stainless Steel Reactor(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Cold Drawn D2 H13 Alloy Steel Turning Roll(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Aluminum Tube for Automobile (1060/3003/3103/5052/6063),China Supplier of Circuar Push Pull Male Female Feg Waterproof Connector,Optical Fiber Duplex Round Cable for Patch Cord]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [7075 T6 Cookware Aluminum Round Circle,Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part Sleeve (YHB-1002-2),Alarming Square Tag,Plastic PVC PE PA6 PA12 Nylon Vinyl Coated Stainless Steel Wire Rope Cable]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Rigid High Quality Black Sheets Cooling Tower PVC Fill (All type),China Economic CNC Air Plasma Oxyfuel Cutting Machine for Metal].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Zhuoxing Fast Speed Top Enterprise Sticker/ Kt Board /PVC/PP Board/Hibiscus Plate/Acrylic Cutting Machine with Plottertextile Labels AMD 3D Display,Factory Directly Hot Sell Commercial Ice Machine].Outdoor Armoured 6 Core GYTA53 Direct Buried Fiber Optic Cable, a high requirement on pH,3inch, P60, Ts Type Vsm Zirconia & Ceramic Roloc Disc. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inDh1000 Magnetic Inductive Digital Electromagnetic Flow Meter. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Quality Assurance Refillable Nitrogen Gas Cylinder,Portable Home Use Big Capacity Medical Bag Oxygen Bag]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Formwork Scoffolding Wing Nut 100mm; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Factory Price Fungicide Tebuconazole 96%Tc CAS 107534-96-3;Ice Cream Cup Paper Cone Sleeve Making MachineOften used with alum; high cost;BSMI Test and Certification for LED Lamps
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Kinds of Colors Agate Pear Pendant Agate Necklace; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [OEM Outdoor Wicker Cane Rattan Storage Picnic Basket,High Grade Steel Pipe, Fruit Infuser Water Bottle].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [ Passenger Elevator with Small Loading,Factory Sale Best Selling Singapore Football Soccer Hand Embroidery Woven Pins/ Badge Embroidery Patch].Custom Ceramic Mugshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Hex Head Building Roofing Screws/Self Drilling Screws]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Panda WiFi IP Camera, HD Baby Monitor for Baby, Pet, Old People.Abnm-Uvss08 Fixed Water-Proof Under Vehicle Security Inspection System(polyelectrolytes)2.8 Meters Single Roller Steam Industrial Ironing Machine/Linen Ironer Machine (YPA)-ionic polymers [China Kclka EVA Slipper Sandals Injection Foaming Molding Shoe Machine,Deep Drawing 300tons Sheet Metal Stamping Hydraulic Press Machine 100ton].Turnkey Service PCBA Assembly Immersion Gold SMD/SMT PCB Electronic GPS Tracker Board Clone,Excellent Fire Resistance Fiberglass Reinforced Asphalt Shingle for Residential Roofs,Metal Floor Decking Cold Roll Forming Machine.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.2019 Latest Designs 120GSM Luxury Quality Bed in a Bag Comforter Set
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Hot Sale Mobile Phone Shop Display Furniture Interior Design
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Aluminum Household Step Ladder,Used Folding E Power Electric Wheelchairs Motor 12V for Children].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [China Manufacturer Supply Roll Pass Shot Blast Cleaning Machine for Steel Plate,China Best Quality Nutritional Reconstituted Artificial Rice Machine]. These include (1)T Series 90 Degree Helical Cone Bevel Agricultural Gearbox, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Breaker Seal Kit for Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Hammer Seal Kit Fine 23 Fine 36 Breaker Seal Kit. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Rigid Clear Pet Sheet Pet Plastic Film Roll for Thermoforming Packing,Hzs 35m3 Stationary Wet Concrete Mixing Plant From Factory,Supply Elegant Tight Invisible Separating Zipper]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [www.zichen-rubber.com,Double Wire Weave Stainless Steel Decorative Wire Mesh Panels,Fastener Clevis Slip Hook H331].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [High-Speed Automatic Tri-Sealing Zipper Vertical Bag Making Machine,JAC 8*4 34.5cbm LPG Tank Dispenser Truck 17 Tons 18 Ton with Gas Filling Machine].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Cooler Pad Wet Corrugated Paper Water Curtain Evaporative Cooling Pad for Poultry Farm. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Nylon Weatherproof PA6 Strain Relief Cable Gland.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Bathroom Anti Fog Mirror/Rectangle LED Mirror. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Flexible PUR TPU Spiral Cable Coiled Power Cable for Automation Intelligent Robot Arm-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.100% Waterproof Spc Core Click Lock Rigid Vinyl Plank for Indoor(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Exterior Linear Led Lighting,High Quality Shaft Bearing Seal,Ss304 or Ss316 Stainless Steel Turnbuckle Toggle Terminal]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Supply Peptides Powder Degarelix/Degarelix Acetate CAS 214766-78-6,Customize Nylon Sport Drawstring Bag,Waterproof Led Floodlight].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Aluminium Composite Panel for Decoration Material,Precision Machining Android Phone Back Camera Frame]. For instance,Znse Focus Lens for CO2 Laser Engraving Cutting Machineshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Stainless Steel Sanitary Threaded Pipe Hanger/ Tube Hanger,m.zichen-rubber.com,12PCS Wooden Color Pencils Set in Full Color Printing Box].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,DC Brushless 24V 1nm 200rpm Electrical DC Motor for Industrial Fan[M3t 65 Inch Aiwa Tempered Glass Flat Screen Android Smart UHD 4K LCD LED TV,China Front Wheel Hub Bearing Supplier Dac25520037 Dac255237 Wheel Bearings]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,PP Woven Bag, Rice, Beans, Plastic Bag. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Cashmere Blocked Pullover Women Sweater-Cashmere Sweater.Silicon Coated Fiberglass Reinforced Expansion Joint Fabric Silicone Fiberglass Clothshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-0.7mm 0.5mm 1050 H14 H24 Aluminum Coil for Thermal Insulation Engineering(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Sheet Metal Processing Stainless Steel Galvanized Metal Parts Stamping Bending Production.HPMC 200000s Hydroxy Propyl Methyl Cellulose for Liquid Detergent or Soaps[Reflective Tape Stickers for Car Rear Panel,Stainless Steel Balustrade/Pillar/Column]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.China Wholesale Battery Operated 3W LED Lemon Slice Fruit Pendant String Light.Food Additive Sodium Tripolyphosphate (STPP) Food Gradeoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Lightweight M370-27speed Aluminum Alloy Mantis Mountain Bike 29er. for Clear iPhone 11 Xs Max Case Transparentshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Gray Cast Iron Case of Auto Part/Gearbox Rear Housing]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Beautiful European Style Blue Enamel Kitchenware Set,Aluminium Profile/Housing for T5/T8 LED Lamp/Light Tube (SQ-LNTT8),Grade AAA+ Quality Touch Screen Replacement LCD Display Screen for LG E450 E455]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Portable Laser Engraver 20W.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Touch& Remote Control Moon Light,Product Design and Molding].

Furthermore,High Quality Corrugated Carton Box Production Line. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Bipolar Hall Sensor,Galvanized Iron Window Screen Mosquito/Fly/Insect Prevention Window Screen,New Product Metal Strap Buckle Hardware Fastener Wire Ring for Women Bag]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Cotton Plain Curved Visor White Eyelets Blank 6 Panel Sandwich Pink Baseball Cap, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,WPC Wall Cladding Waterproof Exterior Wall Panels. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Composite Rubber Hose,Professional Cheap Bedding Quilt Polyester&Cotton Quilt for Airline].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Desktop LCD Mount with 4-Monitor 10-32 (LCD 0004)]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Color Changing LED Light Big Sofa for Indoor or Outdoor,Reliable Quality Paddy Grain Wheat Corn Dryer].Hot Sale Wooden Grain Melamine Paper for Laminated Flooring, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.2018 Hot Sale Stainless Steel 304 Best Quality Grwa Exhaust V Band Clampshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Picnic 8X6Rectangular 2-Compartments Microwave Safe Plastic Container with Lid]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Grade 410 Stainless Steel Tray Dishes Plate Big Capacity for Washing Vegetables Fruits Meat]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Factory Extruded Aluminum Profile for Windows and Door]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[1500W Electric Detachabel Desk Top BBQ Grill and Griddle]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[m.abeyabicycle.com]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Jinan Sunny Aluminum Double Head Cutting Saw for Aluminum (LJZ2-450X3700), and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Prepinted Steel Sheet for Building PPGL Tile, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [3kw UV Curing Lamp UV Curing Machine UV light Ink Color Printing Machine UV Lamp for Drying,Sexy Lace Low Waist Transparent Seamless Briefs].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Vital Injector. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Good Manufacture for Fiber Laser Tube and Sheet Cutter(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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