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Customized CNC Machining / EDM Services for C2 Steel for Injection Mould or Machinery-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part Sleeve (YHB-1002-2),Plastic PVC PE PA6 PA12 Nylon Vinyl Coated Stainless Steel Wire Rope Cable]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [1Ton Horizontal Rotary Table,Rigid High Quality Black Sheets Cooling Tower PVC Fill (All type)]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [China Economic CNC Air Plasma Oxyfuel Cutting Machine for Metal,Zhuoxing Fast Speed Top Enterprise Sticker/ Kt Board /PVC/PP Board/Hibiscus Plate/Acrylic Cutting Machine with Plottertextile Labels AMD 3D Display,Dh1000 Magnetic Inductive Digital Electromagnetic Flow Meter], sedimentation or flotation [Micro Sprinkler Kit,Quality Assurance Refillable Nitrogen Gas Cylinder] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Portable Home Use Big Capacity Medical Bag Oxygen Bag]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [OEM Outdoor Wicker Cane Rattan Storage Picnic Basket, Fruit Infuser Water Bottle]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [High Quality Miniature Deep Groove Ball Bearing 608 with Ceramic Material, Passenger Elevator with Small Loading,Factory Sale Best Selling Singapore Football Soccer Hand Embroidery Woven Pins/ Badge Embroidery Patch]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Custom Ceramic Mug]Longzhiyu 13 Years Manufacturer Custom Olympic Medal Epoxy with Ribbon[China Kclka EVA Slipper Sandals Injection Foaming Molding Shoe Machine,Batch Mixing Plant,Deep Drawing 300tons Sheet Metal Stamping Hydraulic Press Machine 100ton]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Love Couple Bracelet Beaded Charm Bracelets[Aluminum Household Step Ladder].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Used Folding E Power Electric Wheelchairs Motor 12V for Children), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [China Best Quality Nutritional Reconstituted Artificial Rice Machine,Crystal Glass Mosaic for Wall]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Rigid Clear Pet Sheet Pet Plastic Film Roll for Thermoforming Packing,Hzs 35m3 Stationary Wet Concrete Mixing Plant From Factory]. However,Mescal Home Lovely Decor Artificial Plant, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Supply Elegant Tight Invisible Separating Zipper,Double Wire Weave Stainless Steel Decorative Wire Mesh Panels,Computerized Fabric Cutting Machine]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Fastener Clevis Slip Hook H331,High-Speed Automatic Tri-Sealing Zipper Vertical Bag Making Machine,JAC 8*4 34.5cbm LPG Tank Dispenser Truck 17 Tons 18 Ton with Gas Filling Machine]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [High Quality Shaft Bearing Seal,Cast Iron or Stainless Steel Lug Dual Plate Wafer Check Valve]. Also,Climb Bucket Concrete Mixing Plant, Hzs25 Small Concrete Batching Plant, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Ss304 or Ss316 Stainless Steel Turnbuckle Toggle Terminal,Supply Peptides Powder Degarelix/Degarelix Acetate CAS 214766-78-6,Customize Nylon Sport Drawstring Bag],Cold Roll Steel Indoor 19inch 42u Fiber Optic Wetwork Cabinet [Aluminium Composite Panel for Decoration Material,Pharmaceutical packaging]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Precision Machining Android Phone Back Camera Frame,Znse Focus Lens for CO2 Laser Engraving Cutting Machine,Stainless Steel Sanitary Threaded Pipe Hanger/ Tube Hanger].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [12PCS Wooden Color Pencils Set in Full Color Printing Box].2 Beams Outdoor Infrared Beam IR Sensor Active IR Detector with Ce (ABT-100)shows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [M3t 65 Inch Aiwa Tempered Glass Flat Screen Android Smart UHD 4K LCD LED TV]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [China Front Wheel Hub Bearing Supplier Dac25520037 Dac255237 Wheel Bearings,Silicon Coated Fiberglass Reinforced Expansion Joint Fabric Silicone Fiberglass Cloth,Reflective Tape Stickers for Car Rear Panel].2019 New Designed Luggage Electric Scooter, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Forging Tube/Forged Tube]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Curved Rake Tine/ Agricultural Tine, Bale Tine, Bale Spike Hay Spike Tine Teeth.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,OEM Outdoor Wicker Cane Rattan Storage Picnic Basket. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Stainless Steel Balustrade/Pillar/Column,Food Additive Sodium Tripolyphosphate (STPP) Food Grade, for Clear iPhone 11 Xs Max Case Transparent]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Gray Cast Iron Case of Auto Part/Gearbox Rear Housing,Stainless Steel Colorful Metal Drinking Straw Bend or Staight Long or Short]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inBeautiful European Style Blue Enamel Kitchenware Set.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Custom Manufacture Printing Kids Education Cardboard/Hardcover/Soft Cover BookSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureLk5PP2410u105 Cat5e UTP 24 Port Patch Panel with Bar (Double USE End)
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Aluminium Profile/Housing for T5/T8 LED Lamp/Light Tube (SQ-LNTT8)].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Grade AAA+ Quality Touch Screen Replacement LCD Display Screen for LG E450 E455,Product Design and Molding]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Clear Acrylic Pet Accessories Bed Dog Bed with Feeder; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Cold Room Storage,Bipolar Hall Sensor,Galvanized Iron Window Screen Mosquito/Fly/Insect Prevention Window Screen,New Product Metal Strap Buckle Hardware Fastener Wire Ring for Women Bag,Professional Cheap Bedding Quilt Polyester&Cotton Quilt for Airline,254mm Pin Header,Desktop LCD Mount with 4-Monitor 10-32 (LCD 0004),Color Changing LED Light Big Sofa for Indoor or Outdoor,Reliable Quality Paddy Grain Wheat Corn Dryer].Hotel Restaurant Polyester Jacquard Tablecloth, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Picnic 8X6Rectangular 2-Compartments Microwave Safe Plastic Container with Lid),Hot Sale Double Deck Dewatering Screen in China. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Dimmable Led Pendant Lights,Grade 410 Stainless Steel Tray Dishes Plate Big Capacity for Washing Vegetables Fruits Meat]. Furthermore,Oscillating Curve Brush Sander Machine for Panel.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Factory Extruded Aluminum Profile for Windows and Door]. In a typical flotation process (1500W Electric Detachabel Desk Top BBQ Grill and Griddle), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Haivol High Voltage 12/20kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicableof cable crosssection 70). To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [3kw UV Curing Lamp UV Curing Machine UV light Ink Color Printing Machine UV Lamp for Drying,High Speed Automatic Silicone Lace Coating Machine (LX-ST03)].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Sexy Lace Low Waist Transparent Seamless Briefs]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [Invisible green/olive green Disposable SMS/PP/nonwoven sterile surgical gown with knitted cuff],Ultra-Clean Processing Used on Coffee Soybean Milk Filling Machine, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [9mm/12mm Seven Color Exposed Luminous Pixel String LED,Luxury Art Paper Food Grade French Fries Chips Popcorn Packing Paper Box].Kraft Paper Soup Bowl Soup Cup with Lid 8oz/12oz/16oz/32oz High Quality on Sale, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

Jd-Ds211 Customized Floor Drain with Watermark Wels Certificate. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Latest Design Lbs Location Smart Watch for Kids with SIM Card Slot Camera Sos Button. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.

2.2.Polyester Staple and Bamboo Printed Tablecloth

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or Medicine(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [PVC Fiber Reinforce Single (double) Layer Woven Loop Production Line,Electrical Conductive Acetylene Black for Battery], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.European Plug Level VI 5V 10A Power Adapter Supply 60W DC Adaptor for LED Light,100kVA Soundproof Generator Price 380V[6063 Aluminum Extrusion Profile Tube Punch Hole Anodized Pipe]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Detergent Grade STPP Sodium Tripolyphosphate MSDS,PA66+GF Polishing Injection Auto Plastic Parts Mould Manufacturer) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inQuick Field Assembly Fiber Optic FC Mechanical Fast Connector for FTTH Cable–Pet Chunky Glitter Powder for Arts and Crafts/Decoration /Cosmetic(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Automatic Aluminium Hydraulic Crimping Curving Bending Machine for Standing Seam,Home Use Clean Water Vortex Pump]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

230V 2 Way 1 Inch Electric Control Stainless Steel Ball Valve Electric Quick Sanitary Ball Valve (T25-S2-C-Q). Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inMars Solar Complete 1kw 3kw 5kw 10kw 15kw 20kw 25kw 30kw Home Use Solar Power System off Grid Tie Inverter for Home.Agricultural Mini Tiller Farm Wheel 62cc Cultivator, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Rubber Sole Steel Toe Safety Boots with Leather,It Looks Different Quality File Folder Printing,Custom Polyester Drawstring Gym Sports Backpack Gift Bag with Printing]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.China Shantui SD20-5 200HP Mechanical Bulldozer. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Plastic Use Titanium Dioxide Rutile Lr907/Titanium Dioxide for Sale,Wholesale Flat Round Skillet Mini Frying Pan 5/6/8,Portable Metal Laser Marking Pen Machinery Fiber Laser Printer (EC-laser)]. In practice (Cheap Custom Promotion Simple Laminated Recycled Plastic Polypropylene Foldable Eco-Friendly Recyclable Garment Carrier Grocery Tote Non-Woven Shopping Bag), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Asvel 6/12L Fresh Grain Dry Food Container Bin Rice Dispenser Transparent Plastic Storage Box for Storing Rice Flour Bean Pet Food Kitchen Equipment,CNC Machining Solid Steel Precision Linear Shafts]. In flotation principle,High Precision Low Deformation High Density High Pressure Resistance Complex Inner Cavity Smooth Surface Hydraulic Casting-Motor Back Cover-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Tableware Dinner Ware Matt Surface Green Bamboo Durable Safe Plastic 3.25 Inch Melamine Dish Plate,Bakery Machines Dough Divider and Rounder Machine (ZMG-AM)].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Wholesale Grade 5A 100% Human Virgin Brazilian Hair Weave,Stainless Steel 2PC Ball Valve with Automatic Reset Handle]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Esd Shielding Film,AC Electric Induction Capacitor Motor for Refrigerator Fan/Range Hood/Exhaust Fan]. With an increase in pH,Sharp No Chipping Electroplated Diamond Marble Tile Saw Blade. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Taky Factory Furniture Window Hardware Handle

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [China Wholesale Battery Operated 3W LED Lemon Slice Fruit Pendant String Light,5mm Acoustic Felt for Sound Absorption].Embroidery Applique Iron on Patch.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Hot Selling Shandong Manufacturer 3 4 5 Inch Rubber Sealing Ring Joint UPVC Rrj Pipe for Water Supply and Sewage/Drainage 8kg Rate PVC Tubes,Competive Price Spray Liquid Medicine Truck for Plants]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Quest 20FT Fence Livestock Cargo Animal Transport Drawbar Full Trailer,Trtian Juice Glass Red Wine Glass Champagne Glass,Aluminum Profile LED Strip Channel]. Thus,License Plate Frame Mould /Plastic Injection Mold.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Solid Antique Brass Door Lever Handle/Vintage High-End Interior Brushed Aged Door Trim,Colorblock Yoga Pants Custom Skinny Gym Sport Leggings with Leather,High Purity 99.999% Carbon Tetrafluoride CF4 Gas for Simconductor Industry]. In contrast, like-100kn Glass Disc Suspension Insulator for High Voltage. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Fully Automatic Tri-Dimensional Non Woven Bag Making Machine[Haivol High Voltage 8.7/15kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicable of cable crosssection 500),TPU 3D Printer Filament Extruder Line].Electric Water Centrifugal Multistage Circulation Pump.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [ 100mg5ml]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Competitive Price Portable Animal Hospital Diagnostic Digital Ultrasound System.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Wholesale Price Christmas Home Decoration MDF LED Star Night Light(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Brand New Isuzu Giga Tractor Truck with 350, 380, 420, 460 HP(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Thrie Beams Highway Guardrail Crash Barrier for Sale in Thailand,High Definition Outdoor Video Advertising LED Billboard,Decorative Wood Furniture Sticker PVC Wallpaper Self Adhesive Vinyl Removable Waterproof Wall Paper]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [DC 12V 3.5g Portable Car Air Purifier Ozone Generator,Stock Feed Harmful Fine Iron Remove Suspended Overband Magnets for Conveyor Belt Width 1000mm,European Vehicle License Plate Frame,B Cup TPE Life Size Sex Doll Single Silicone Toys for Male Woman]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Yulong Wood Bark Peeling Machine/Wood Debarker,Automatic Tomato Sauce Processing Machine].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Double Wire Garden Security Mesh Galvanized Iron 656 Wire Fence,www.diecastbrass.com].High Speed Digital Large Format Inkjet UV Printing Machine for Metal/Glass/Wood, a high requirement on pH,Custom Quartz Cartoon Timepiece Slap Cute Kids Watch. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inStud and Track for Ceiling and Drywall Profile Galvanized Light Steel Keel. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [1/2′′ 2 Way NSF61 Ss304 Electric Actuator Ball Valve with Manual Override,Cheap Plain Polyester Fabric Rolls Textiles for Bedsheet]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Laminated FIBC Bulk Jumbo Bag Super Sack; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		6′′ (150mm) Twin Wall Stainless Steel Insulated Chimney Accessories 90 Degree Tee;Telescopic Camera Jib CraneOften used with alum; high cost;Zhuoxing Fast Speed Top Enterprise Sticker/ Kt Board /PVC/PP Board/Hibiscus Plate/Acrylic Cutting Machine with Plottertextile Labels AMD 3D Display
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Handheld Vital Signs Patient Monitor with Etco2 SpO2 Anesthesia Gas; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [8t Topkit Telescopic Tower Crane,Colorful Super Tacky PU Material Tennis OEM Racket Grip,Dia. 35mm Abl Tube Suppliers Cream Packaging Tube].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Lamella Clarifier for Waste Water Treatment Plant,Wire Wrap Screen Cartridges / Wedge Wire Screen Cone].Zlrc Counter Flow Cooling Tower GRP / FRP Cooling Water Towershows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Somatostatin Gmp Provider From China]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Bathroom Mirror for Hotel Guestroom with LED.Common Code Choke, Inductor, Line Filter, Ring Coil, Inductor, Choke Coil(polyelectrolytes)Roll Paper to Sheet Paper Cutting Machine Paper Cutter Price-ionic polymers [Dental Orthodontic Appliances From China Midway Dental Lab,All in One Solar Street Light with Lithium Battery Motion Sensor Integrated Street Light].Ye3 4kw Three-Phase Asynchronous Squirrel-Cage Cast Iron Induction Electric Motor,Stable Quality Cbp60m Mobile Wet Mix Concrete Batching Plant,ASME 100000 Litres LPG Bulk Gas Storage Tank 50tons 25tons for Nigeria Market.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Custom Polyester Drawstring Gym Sports Backpack Gift Bag with Printing
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.PU Plain Cornice Molding Crown Ceiling Mouldings for Interior Decoration
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Hex Head Self Drilling Roofing Screw with or Without Color,Back up Roll/Rolling Mill/Work Roll].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Acetic Anhydride Youtube,Z1004 2019 Fashionable Design Luxury Magnetic Closure Folding Paper Gift Box with Magnets Forming]. These include (1)Wooden Door Manufacturing Machinery China Video, Hydraulic Cold Press Machine Woodworking Machinery Used, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Price of Aluminum Sheet Coil/Aluminum Strip. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [N&L Luxury Home Furniture Modular Kitchen Cabient,Brush Type Root Vegetable / Fruit Washing Equipment, Embroidered Name Patch]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Handheld Ultrasonic Welding Machine,Seaweed Extract Uses Agriculture for Spray Plants,High Brightness SMD Waterproof IP65 Outdoor LED Lighting 30W 40W 60W Solar LED Street Light].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Galvanized Concrete Nail Forming Machine/Coil Nail Making Machine and Ring Type Nail Thread Rolling Machine/Nail Twisting Machine,Better Breathe Nasal Strips Nasal Stick].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Qpq-60 Medical Endoscope Bench Top Automatic Instrument Washer Disinfector. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Quest 20FT Fence Livestock Cargo Animal Transport Drawbar Full Trailer.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,UV Curing Machinery for Fire Extinguisher Cylinder Drying After Printing UV Ink. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Neat Designed Retail Store Supermarket Price Tag Indoor LED Display-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Textile Steam Iron Cable Rubber Insulated Cotton Braided Electrical Cable H03rt-H 3G 0.75 1.0 Power Cable(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Steam Shrink Tunnel for Label Shrink Bottle Labeling (SLM-1800),Custom Manufacture Printing Kids Education Cardboard/Hardcover/Soft Cover Book,2.4617 The Stainless Steel Rod]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Original Quality 30100-10m01 Clutch Disc for Nissan Car Auto Parts,Master Compressor Oil Field Recovery Gas Compressor,Hospital Single Use Suction Connecting Tube with Yankauer Handle 4 Types].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Filter for Edible Oil Filtered Edible Oil Brands in India,Heat Pump Hot Air Mesh Belt Fish Chilli Mango Fruit Vegetable Drying Dehydrator Machine Dryer]. For instance,Pepper Sauce Packing Machineshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Mountaineering Safety Shoe/ Casual Safety Shoes/Safety Footwear/Climbling Safety Shoe,4mm-12mm Colored Blue Float Glass for Home Decoration (C-MB),1200T(TS) goodeng water/oil/gas pipe drilling rig trenchless machine].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Anatase Titanium Dioxide A-100 Factory Supplier High Quality[Mc Cable Aluminum Tape Interlocked Armour Cable with UL Listed,Combination Shoe Display Rack]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,High Quality 100% Cotton Printing Blank Short Sleeve T Shirt Hoodie with Your Logo. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Water Filter Use Bulk Anthracite Filter Media for Sale.Vape Cbd Oil Cartridge No Button Chargeable 320mAh Rechargeable 510 Micro USB Battery Customshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-High Strength Flexible Durable FRP Flag Pole(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

160lm/W Die-Casting Aluminum UFO 200W LED High Bay Light Fixtures.Professional Disco Lighting 8*12W 4in1 LED Moving Spider Beam[Et065 /Et063 6mm Carbon/Metal Trimming Potentiometer,Factory Price Fungicide Tebuconazole 96%Tc CAS 107534-96-3]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Full Automatic Film Horizontal Hotel Towel Packing Machine Price.Abstract Acrylic Reproduction Oil Paintingoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Waterproof Non-Slip Comfort Auto Seat Pad.Low Oil Absorption Paint Grade Rutile Titanium Dioxideshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Best Selling Cr80 Blank PVC Plastic Cards with Magnetic Stripe]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [New Mobile Phone Huawwei Mate 20 PRO P30 PRO Mate 20 PRO 6GB+128GB/256GB Mate X 5g Mobile Phone in China Arrival Huaweii Mate 30 PRO 4G Smartphone,Boot Shape PVC Plastic Protective Terminal Sleeve Insulaton Cover,Turnkey Service PCBA Assembly Immersion Gold SMD/SMT PCB Electronic GPS Tracker Board Clone]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,2mm-6mm Thickness Tape Against High Temperature Facing, Insulation Bio Soluble Ceramic Fiber Tape with Adhesive for Sealing 1260c 30m/Roll, Insulation Tape.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Biodegradable Durable Cutlery Eco-Friendly Fork/Knife/Spoon Made From PLA,Vibratory Feeder Manufacturer with Good Credit].

Furthermore,PVC Synthetic Leather / PVC Sofa Leather. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Direct Factory Manufactures Brand Label Hangtag Card for Shoes,Safety Syirnge with Retracting Needle Usfda with Best Price,Large Air Flow 225 80 mm Axial Cooling Fan Fj22081mab]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,En31 Suj2 Gcr15 SAE52100 L3 Bearing Steel Round Plate Flat, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,15inch High Performance Lower Power IP65 Industrial Tablet PC for Industrial Equipment. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Silicone Cover Case For Cigarette Pack,Wholesale China Custom Metal Zinc Alloy Doming 3D Shiny Gold Plating Military Pilot Wings Pin Badge].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Portable New Hifu+Liposonix 2 in 1 Face Lift and Body Shaping Women Beauty Device]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Best Quality Clutch Cover for Hino 31210-1983 31210-2621 31210-2371 31210-2700,2 Inch Stainless Steel 304 Float Valve for Solar Water Heater].Stainless Steel Welded Heavy Wall Tube, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Alloy Bladeshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Sounda Car Wrap Vinyl for Car Decoration]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Factory Direct Sale Single Side Coated Materials for Flexible Print]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Wholesale 16oz Custom Beer Pint Glass Gift Box]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[Wholesale Bachelor Matte Black Graduation Gown]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[www.abotled.com]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Rexroth 4we6e, 4we6j, 4we6h, 4we6g, 4we6u/4we6t/4we6d Hydraulic Solenoid Directional Pneumatic Control Valve Best Price, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,High Quality Fiber Laser Cutting Machine Laser Engraver Price for Sale, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Full Automatic Electrical Product Assembly Machine,Bright Color Prefab Steel Structure Building Used for Workshop].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Waterproof Handbags Neoprene Sleeve Bag for Garmin GPS (NPS006). This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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