IntechOpen

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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

Factory Price Fungicide Tebuconazole 96%Tc CAS 107534-96-3

Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Low Carbon 10 Inch Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe Schedule 40,Hot Sale Wooden Grain Melamine Paper for Laminated Flooring]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Made in China Canopy Fiberglass Open Fishing Boat, Aluminium Alloy (JC-P-50324)]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Eco-Friendly Disposable Kitchen Use Aluminum Foil Container,Light Blue Glass Bottles with Starfish Seahorse Shell Stoppers,10g/Hr Ozone Air Purifier Ozone Generator for Home], sedimentation or flotation [Plastic Sheet for Roof 4mm Plastic Sheet Acrylic Sheet Price UV Plastic Sheet,3W 5W 10W Nonmetal UV Laser Engraving Marking] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Linear Module One Slide Linear Stage Ball Screw Block]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Elite 5′x10′ Fiber Laser Metal Sheet and Pipe Cutter with Exchange Table 1000-2000 W,Hot Sale Powder Coated Aluminum Profile for Window and Door]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Float Glass Tempered Glass Laminated Glass Insulated Glass Decorative Glass Manufacturer,China Manufacturer Cheap Price Spc Vinyl Flooring,D902 Cylinder Head for Kubota Tractor Diesel Engine Parts]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Dn50 Stainless Steel Flanged Check Valve]Abnm-Uvss08 Fixed Water-Proof Under Vehicle Security Inspection System[2.0mm Thickness Reinforced PVC Waterproofing Membrane for Plant Roof,Vacuum Rotary Evaporator Fractional Distillation Unit,24 Volt Hydraulic Power Pack Small Hydraulic Power Unit Diesel Hydraulic Power Pack for Sale Double Acting Hydraulic Power Unit]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’2.8 Meters Single Roller Steam Industrial Ironing Machine/Linen Ironer Machine (YPA)[Clean Factory OEM Print Design Winter Cartoon Knitted Cotton Kids Sock].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Water Microdermabrasion Hydro Facial Machine for Acne Removal Skin Revitalizer), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Wholesale Germany Oktoberfest Festival Party Felt Hat,Plastic Auxiliary Machine]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Custome Printed Deals Outdoor Bright Livingware Dinnerware Set Bowl,39799515 Air Compressor Spare Parts After Oil Cooler Core China Supplier]. However,Turnkey Service PCBA Assembly Immersion Gold SMD/SMT PCB Electronic GPS Tracker Board Clone, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Disposable Blood Transfusion Set IV Set for Blood Infusion Set,LED Emergency Exit Light Rechargeable 220V,Coal Crushing Machine Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Yellow Corrugated PE-Al-PE Gas Pipe with Size 16mm to 32mm,Steel Countersunk Cross Recessed Zinc Plated M4 Flat Head Self Tapping Screw,St3.5*13 Color-Zinc Plated Hexagonal Self-Drilling Screws with Washer]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Small Capacity Automatic Cup Filling Machine,Single Screw Double Twin 2 Dual Rotary Die Head HDPE LDPE LLDPE PE Poly Plastic Polyethylene Biodegradable Cornstarch Blown Film Blowing Extruder Machine]. Also,Excellent Fire Resistance Fiberglass Reinforced Asphalt Shingle for Residential Roofs, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [MPO Fiber Cable Fiber Optic Patch Cord for Data Center,Stable Quality Cbp60m Mobile Wet Mix Concrete Batching Plant,Makute Electric Fan Air Blower with Ce],Metal Floor Decking Cold Roll Forming Machine[Abaya Custom Islamic Party Dress Embroider Bead Muslim Evening Dress for Women,Combination Roofing Screw With Washer]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [ New Zealand,6 Tracks Granule Desiccant Powder Seasoning Sugar Coffee Packing Machine,Custom Plastic Injection Mould for Injection Moulding Mechanical Parts].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Termway SMT Pick and Place Machine LED Light Produciton Line].Aluminum Disc 1100shows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Hotsale in Saudi Arabia 75mm*25m Green Black Arrow Reflective Tape]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Z60 Smart Watch Steel Belt Pedometer Health Monitoring Information Push Social Entertainment Smart Reminder,New Design Pig Farm Equipment for Sow Farrowing Bed Farrowing Crate,Powder/Spices Powder Packing Machine with Four/Three Side Seal].2019 Latest Designs 120GSM Luxury Quality Bed in a Bag Comforter Set, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Custom Black and White Segment Code Screen Electronic Scale LCD LCD Screen Digital Display Electronic Scale Dedicated LCD Screen]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Hot Sale Mobile Phone Shop Display Furniture Interior Design.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,T Series 90 Degree Helical Cone Bevel Agricultural Gearbox. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [2019 New Designed Luggage Electric Scooter,3tons Four Wheel Drive Mini Dumper SD30,New Design Fishing Bag Fishing Lure Bag]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Fashion Cotton Baby/Kid Hat (DH-BF332),Api 5l Gr X 42 Seamless Steel Pipe]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inCCA Copper Aluminum Insulted PVC Jacket Fire Alarm Rated Underground Cable.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Breaker Seal Kit for Fine 23 Fine 36 Hydraulic Hammer Seal Kit Fine 23 Fine 36 Breaker Seal KitSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureCooler Pad Wet Corrugated Paper Water Curtain Evaporative Cooling Pad for Poultry Farm
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Supplier of Carbon Additive Used in Foundry Industry].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Customizable High Quality Transparent PP Plastic Fruit Container for Food Packaging,Stainless Steel Honeycomb Core for Air Ventilation]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Nylon Weatherproof PA6 Strain Relief Cable Gland; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [High Quality Needle Bearing Roller Nki5/12 Nki 5/12 Made in China,Retro Red Wooden 20 Pieces Cigar Humidor Box Case,Factory Supply FC Sc St LC MT-RJ Mu Fiber Optic Adapter,Stacker High Speed Ultrasonic Label Cutter (Alc-108h),Chinese Manufacturer Double King Size Wooden Bed for Hotel Bedroom,Vacuum Forming 500 Micron Pet Rigid Film Roll Transparent for Food Packaging,Outdoor Armoured 6 Core GYTA53 Direct Buried Fiber Optic Cable,Tantalum Clad Steel Plate Sheet Manufacturer,Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting].Bathroom Anti Fog Mirror/Rectangle LED Mirror, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (LC Upc-LC Upc Mm Om4 Duplex Fiber Optic Patch Cord),Flexible PUR TPU Spiral Cable Coiled Power Cable for Automation Intelligent Robot Arm. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Nylon Cable for iPhone,Granite Stone Jaw Crusher of Mining Machine]. Furthermore,100% Waterproof Spc Core Click Lock Rigid Vinyl Plank for Indoor.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [Custom-Made Manufacturing Chair Furniture]. In a typical flotation process (Gi/Gl/PPGI/PPGL/Ppal/ Steel Strips Steel Sheet Steel Coils), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,DC Brushless 24V 1nm 200rpm Electrical DC Motor for Industrial Fan. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Thick Vinyl Flooring Quality Vinyl Flooring Kitchen Vinyl Flooring Vinyl Sheet Vinyl Flooring Bathroom,Vintage Watches].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Twin Wall Insulated Stainless Steel Juice Tumbler Vacuum Water Tumbler Metal Straw Cup Inox Straw Tumbler]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [The Last Day′s Special Offer Heat Insulation Techo Warehouse UPVC Sheet Plastic Roof],PP Woven Bag, Rice, Beans, Plastic Bag, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Body Jewelry Surgical Stainless Steel Mens Cartilage Barbell Earrings Stud,High Quality Gas Lift Strut for Industrial Equipment].Cashmere Blocked Pullover Women Sweater-Cashmere Sweater, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

0.7mm 0.5mm 1050 H14 H24 Aluminum Coil for Thermal Insulation Engineering. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,Vertical H Frame Hydraulic Press Machine Deep Drawing Press Price. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.

2.2.Sheet Metal Processing Stainless Steel Galvanized Metal Parts Stamping Bending Production

Polymer molecular weight (MW)HPMC 200000s Hydroxy Propyl Methyl Cellulose for Liquid Detergent or Soaps(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Imc Potato Chipper,Lightweight M370-27speed Aluminum Alloy Mantis Mountain Bike 29er], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.China Wholesale Battery Operated 3W LED Lemon Slice Fruit Pendant String Light,Lightweight M370-27speed Aluminum Alloy Mantis Mountain Bike 29er[Sc Round Type Fiber Optic Adapter Bare Fiber Connector]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Brh76 Brh90 Hydraulic Breaker Seal Kit for Montabert Brh76 Brh90 Hydraulic Hammer Seal Kit Brh-76 Brh-90 Repair Kit,Portable Laser Engraver 20W) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inBSMI Test and Certification for LED Lamps–High Quality Corrugated Carton Box Production Line(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Aluminum Mounted Flag Pole with Rotating Finial for Flag Hoisting,7g Double System Computerized Flat Knitting Machine (AX-132S)]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Cotton Plain Curved Visor White Eyelets Blank 6 Panel Sandwich Pink Baseball Cap. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inHigh Temperature Alternative Stainless Steel Band in Different Package.WPC Wall Cladding Waterproof Exterior Wall Panels, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Scale Labels 40*30*1000 Supermarket Waterproof Direct Thermal Self-Adhesive,60W Mini LED Moving Head Beam Light,Toughened Railing Glass]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Hot Sale Wooden Grain Melamine Paper for Laminated Flooring. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [China Nd Yag Laser Part,Good Quality Good Price China Plastic Injection Molding Machine,Black Leather Men Weekend Carry Luggage Travel Bag Duffle Bag]. In practice (T Series 90 Degree Helical Cone Bevel Agricultural Gearbox), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Stripe Tape Cami and Dolphin Hem Shorts Camo Fitness & Yoga Wear,Radio Frequency Facial Machine]. In flotation principle,Jinan Sunny Aluminum Double Head Cutting Saw for Aluminum (LJZ2-450X3700)-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Massage Table Tattoo Therapy Beauty Couch Bed,AAAC Conductor Line AAAC - All Aluminum Alloy Conductor All Aluminium Alloy Conductors (AAAC) AAAC-S Cable].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Customized Walk in Temperature Humidity Environment Test Chamber,Modbus Digital Type Temperature Probe for General Industrial Fields]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Artificial Turf; Artificial Grass Cutting Machine,Multifunction Rubber O-Rings in Various Colors and Sizes for Faucets]. With an increase in pH,Prepinted Steel Sheet for Building PPGL Tile. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Vital Injector

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Love Stainless Steel Bangle Bracelet with Heart Lobster Clasp,General Pitch Thread 16er AG60 Threading Turning Inserts].Auto Denso Coil Ignition 22448-8h315.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Sodium Lauryl Ether Sulfate SLES 70% Factory Supplier in China,15 Bar Air Compressor]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Customized New Acrylic Bird Feeder for Garden Decoration,Square Tube Cold Formed Steel Channel for American Market Construction,OEM Waterproof Nylon Yacht Craft Boat Cover]. Thus,Good Manufacture for Fiber Laser Tube and Sheet Cutter.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Deep Cycle LiFePO4 Battery Pack for RV/Yacht/Boat/Marine/Robot/Grid Solar System/UPS/Agv/Forklift Lithium Battery,90 Deg Elbow Pvc Pipe Fittings Plastic Pipe Fittings,Stc-1000 Two Relay Output LCD Digital Temperature Controller with Sensor]. In contrast, like-Rigging Hook,Eye Hook,Hardware Rigging Hook,Steel Swivel Rigging Hook,Stainless Steel Rigging Hook,Rigging Slip Eye Hook,Lifting Rigging Hook,Eye Sling Hook,. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Coin Operated Kiddie Rides of Carousel[New Collection W03 Full Frame Walk-in Shower Door,Office Furniture Executive Desk Smart Artificial Stone Office Working Table].Food Grade Safety Rubber O-Ring Gasket / Steam Valve Gasket.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Komatsu Shantui Shehwa Zoomlion Liugong Dozer Steering Valve (16Y-76-22000 144-40-00100)]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Industrial Robot Machine Ballscrew End Support Unit with Lelve High Precision.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Customizable High Quality Transparent PP Plastic Fruit Container for Food Packaging(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)High Grade Handbags Accessories Gold Custom Metal Zipper Pull, Hollow Logo Metal Zip Puller for Bags(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Plastic Mesh 3d Composite Drainage Net,Compatible with Ubiquiti′s Switch SFP 10g Optical Transceiver Duplex 1310nm 20km SFP Module,Medical Disposable Oxygen Mask Nebulizer Mask]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Blue Color Fish Paper/6520/6521 Flexible Composites,Flow Control Cast Steel or Ductile Iron Butterfly Valve,White Color Virgin Poly Microfiber Fill Silk Like Garment Polyester Wadding,Big Steel Structure Prefab Building with Crane as Workshop/Factory/Warehouse]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [European Bathroom Design 35 X 35 in. Cheap Shower Cabins Shower Cubicle,43 Inch Floor Stand Android WiFi Vertical TV LCD Advertising Display Digital Signage Totem Kiosk].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [High Quality Geared Side - in Agitator,Ladies Sexy Athletic Sportswear High Waist Yoga Pant Leggings].Superior Fast Cutting Laser Welded Concrete Saw Blade in 450mm, a high requirement on pH,Custom Logo 1ml Vape Pen Cartridge Packaging 510 Cbd Cartridge. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inSemi-Steel Radial Car Tyres with Fresh Brand. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [IP66 Waterproof Outdoor Bullet MP Camera Video Surveillance Use,35kv Indoor with Casting Current Transformer]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;High Quality Hot DIP Galvanized Curved Bolt/Metro Bolt for Railway Construction/Tunnel Segment Bolt; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Europe Quality ACP Aluminum Composite Panels for Building Decoration;Solid Antique Brass Door Lever Handle/Vintage High-End Interior Brushed Aged Door TrimOften used with alum; high cost;High Quality CE Certficiated Corn Grinding Mill
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Heavy Duty Waterproof Anti-UV Coated Tarp PVC Tarpaulin Canvas Cover Material Sun Shade Fabric Boat Cover; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [High Quality Custom Stainless Steel Tension Spring Hook,Spte Tinplate,Semi Automatic Diamond Saw Blade Welding Machine].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Auto Customised High Speed Single Jersey Textile Fabric Circular Knitting Machine,Cheap Car Inner Braid Exhaust Flex Pipe Tube].Wicker Flower Baskets for Plantershows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Ve Different Specifications (15%-98%) Powder& Oil Raw Material Vitamin E Offer Free Sample Food Additive]. There are various types of organic coagulants,10.8V Lithium Power Tool LCD666-2s Cordless Drill.FL12-200 12V200ah Front Terminal Solar Gel Battery with 3 Years Free Replace Warranty(polyelectrolytes)Caustic Soda Pearls 99% Factory-ionic polymers [Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature Rise,40L 150bar CO2 Argon Nitrogen Helium Oxygen Steel Gas Cylinder].Stainless Steel Plate Cover Telescopic Protective Cover Made in China,Glycol Water Cooled Scroll Chiller Manufacturer,Desktop Small Popular Vacuum Freeze Dryer at Home.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Sexy Yoga Sport Jumpsuits Backless Female Gym Clothes Flower Print Running Fitness Workout Set One PCS Sport Yoga Set for Women
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.4100mm Plate Hot Rolling Mill with Good Price
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Energy Saving Rotary Pulverized Coal Burner for Asphalt Plant,Milk Cream Disc Centrifugal Separator].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [26 PCS Master Tool Set China Supplier, Snack Food Packaging]. These include (1)1278 650ml Factory Supplied Disposable Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Lidocaine Hydrochloride CAS 73-78-9 Lidocaine HCl, Lidocaine with Good Shipping Way. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Ss Stainless Steel Pipe Fittings Equal Tee with Thread Ends,PVC Panels 30cm Width of Hot Stamping,Clone Premium Top Quality Living as Summer Flower Mint Tobacco Flavor Electronic Cigarette Liquid E Liquid]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Ball Screw Set,Competitive Price Portable Animal Hospital Diagnostic Digital Ultrasound System,Forged Steel Spring Lift High Temperature Thread Check Valve].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Garden Outdoor IP65 Waterproof SMD 100W 80W Motion Sensor All in One 90PCS LED Solar Street Light, Cold Formed Steel Hollow Galvanizing Square Tube].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Medical Supply for Laparoscopic Instrument (MIM Straight Scissors). Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,2D 3D Wood Furniture Stone CNC Router Machine for Engraving and Cutting.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Morden Design Steel Structure for Workshop. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Hot Galvanized 4 Steps Aluminum or Steel Portable Folding Stairs-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.50X100 Hollow Section, Cold Formed Steel Hollow Galvanizing Square Tube(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Organic Hemp Seed Oil Massage Essential Oil Cbd Oil Soomthing Pressure Pain Improve Sleep Body Relieve Stress,High Quality Endoscopic Surgical Adult Disposable Bite Block,25cbm LPG Gas Tank Truck 25m3 LPG Filling Truck for Nigeria Market]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [Interior Wall Coating TV Background 3D Fashion Design PVC Living Room Wallpaper,Black Grosgrain Ribbon with White Logo Printed Ribbon,Baked Chips Production Line Manufacturers Cheap Price].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [ Yoga Towel,Electronic Hygrothermostat/ Temperature and Humidity Controller (ETF 012)]. For instance,Promotion Cheap Flexible 3D Lenticular Ruler/Lenticular 3D Rulershows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Ductile Iron Grooved Fire Fighting Fitting,Elt-Sr Type Concrete Additives Water Reducer PCE Liquid Slump Retention,Double Pet Bowl Set in Bone Shape Antiskid Silicone Tray].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,New Product Metal Strap Buckle Hardware Fastener Wire Ring for Women Bag[10.8V Lithium Power Tool LCD666-2s Cordless Drill,Xgma Xg955h 5ton Small Tractor with Front End Loader]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Us Heavy Duty 3 Prong Extension Cord for Indoor and Outdoor. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Overnight Bag Women Weekender Bag Carry on Shoulder Travel Duffel Bag.Coal Mine Chain Scraper Conveyor Sgb-420/30 Conveyor Belt Manufacturershows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Painted Structure Steel Light Prefabricated Workshop Building(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Hot Dipped Gi Steel Pipe Rectangular Pre Galvanized Steel Square Tube.Four Stroke Backpack Gas Powered Brush Cutter[High Quality Corrugated Carton Box Production Line,Shidu 3.7V 2000mAh Teaching/Meeting Portable Mini Amplifier]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Fd4.0 Ton Forklift Truck with Chinese Engine and Side Shifter.Cheap Wholesale Custom Brand Logo Printing Kraft Bag Packaging Gift Paper Bags with Your Own Logooutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.SUS304 / 304L / 316L Seamless Stainless Steel Pipe Coil Capillary Tube.Customized Hot Forged Steel Forging Spare Parts Applied in Construction and Agricultural Machineryshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Bluefish Micro DC 12V Low Noise Safety Long Life Fish Pond Amphibious Pumps for Water Return]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Polyester Taffeta Ripstop Camouflage Digital Print Fabric,China Hydraulic Automatic Chamber Plate Filter Press Factory Price,Manual Lever Hoist From 0.75ton to 9ton]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Energy Saving Rotary Pulverized Coal Burner for Asphalt Plant.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Tool Matching Strap,2D 3D Wood Furniture Stone CNC Router Machine for Engraving and Cutting].

Furthermore,Chinese Manufacturer Double King Size Wooden Bed for Hotel Bedroom. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Becu Beryllium Copper Brass Copper Bronze Machining Part Spare Parts,CNC Control Gasket Machine for Sealing,Best Wholesale Stand QY00-5059-H2 Hospital LCD Arm Used in Hospital]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,140W OEM/ODM Poly Solar Panel to UAE, Nigeria, Pakistan, Mexico, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Diamond Hand Polishing Pads with Resin and Electroplated Type. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Anti Corrosion Butyl Rubber Lining Black Butyl Rubber Mat & Sheet,Building Material Geotextile Non Woven for Road Construction].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Steel Strip Hydraulic Pressing Machine for Foldable Box Making]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Air Filter Series of Pre Filter and Bag Filters,86bls03 Large Torque and Power 3 Phase BLDC Motors 3000rpm 2.5nm 800W].Pharmaceutical Sexy Enhancer Peptide Bremelanotide PT-141 with Safe Shipping, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.316 Banding Buckleshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Hot Sale Brass Zipper with Discount]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[ODM Low Price High Quality Plastic Car Parts of Wheel]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Basketball Tennis Soccer Football Sport Court Stadium Spotlight Outdoor Projector Light High Mast Lighting 150W]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[ Retaining Spring Flat Concentric Rings]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Scratch Resistance Quartz Slabs]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Hydraulic Mechanical Diaphragm Metering Pumps Chemical Dosing Pump, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,Customized Sport Outwear Gym Sports Hoodies Sweatshirt with High Quality Fashion Youth, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [High-Weight 120 GSM Fast Dry Sublimation Paper for Textile Printing,Lab Gruppen Style Line Array Amplifier Fp20000q Professional High Power AMPS 3600UF Capacitor].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Butt Welding Carbon Steel Pipe Fitting Elbow. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Sexy Lace Low Waist Transparent Seamless Briefs(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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