IntechOpen

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Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

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Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [7 Pin SMD Mini Slide Switch with White or Black Stem, SMD LED Soldering Machine]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Api 5l Gr X 42 Seamless Steel Pipe,Hot Sale ABS Plastic Injection Parts Lampshade Cover]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [FTTH Manufacture Supply ABS 12 24 Core Fiber Optic Splice Cassette Tray,Portable AISI 316 Air Operated Diaphragm Pump,Auto Rear Axle Shock Absorber], sedimentation or flotation [High Quality Needle Bearing Roller Nki5/12 Nki 5/12 Made in China,Trisun Mechanical Control Valve for Air Compressor] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [High Resolution Full Digital Trolley Color Doppler Ultrasound Machine/ Portable Ultrasound Mslcu30]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Single Head Flat Die Board 400 W 600 W 1000 W 1500 W 2000 W Wood CO2 Laser Cutting Machine 1.8X1.2m for Sale,2000X3000mm Wood CNC Router Cutter Machine for Wooden Door Table Bed]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [Vacuum Forming 500 Micron Pet Rigid Film Roll Transparent for Food Packaging,Factory 4X6 Custom Size Direct Thermal Transfer A4 Letter Size Shipping Address Label Sticker,Industrial Wafer Type Lug Butterfly Valve with Handle]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Single Glass Door Beer Cooler Fridge Soft Drink Upright Display Chiller for Convenience Store]2-Color Handle Adjustable Spanner[OEM 250ml Body Butter Body Lotion,Nylon Cable for iPhone,Sliding Shower Door for USA with Stainless Steel Sliding Rail]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Wholesale Germany Oktoberfest Festival Party Felt Hat[Air-Sealed Inflatable Military Tent with Windows].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Matte Finish Matt Finish Oxidation Scale Layer Removing Turbo Tumbler), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Dog Puppy Squeaker Plush Toy Training Chew Simulation Pet Products,Vintage Watches]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Handle Operation Flanged Lined FEP Butterfly Valve (D41F46),14*14 Ss Finish Aluminum Window Screen Mosquito Net for India Market]. However,Indoor Full Color HD LED Video Display Curtain, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Universal Intercooler 330*136*65 Bar and Plate Water Cooled Intercooler,Aluminum Pipe 3003,Imc Potato Chipper]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [High Efficiency Good Supplier Storage Rack Roll Forming,4 Inch Resin Bond Abrasive Cutting Disc for Stainless Steel and Inox,Yellow Plain Canvas Baseball Cap with Zipper Pocket]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [PVC Blank RFID MIFARE Classic 1K Contactless NFC Business Cards,7g Double System Computerized Flat Knitting Machine (AX-132S)]. Also,Automatic battery layer chicken cage for layer/egg chicken/hen, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Hot Sale PVC Ceiling and Wall Cladding Sheet and Plastic Bathroom Ceiling Panels,Custom Metal Plastic CNC Machining Machinery Spun Brass Spare Part,Stainless Steel Legs electric Buffet Warming Trays],Horizontal Rustproof Multi-Function Blood Storage Refrigerator Yj-40-60-Wa[Full Automatic Liquid Filling Machine,China Nd Yag Laser Part]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [Automatic Amada Style CNC Hydraulic Press Brake 40t -400t,Brass Gate Valve for Middle East Country,Customized Flexible Spring Coiled Wire and Retractable Power Cord Spiral Cable with PU Insulation].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Hot Sale Distiller′s Grains Dewatering Machine Chinese Medicine Screw Press Solid Separator with Good Quality].Radio Frequency Facial Machineshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Suspended LED linear light  Excellent Quality LM-052 aluminum profile]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Flat Pressure Indentation Punching Machine Automatic Card Box Die Cutting,Die Casting Car Parts Housing Machining Accessories for Auto Parts, P60].Garden Fence for Security Add Post with SGS, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Artificial Turf; Artificial Grass Cutting Machine]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Coffee Bean Packaging Plastic Bag.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Customized Bending Welding Stainless Steel Stamping Part. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Wholesale Price Christmas Home Decoration MDF LED Star Night Light,JIS Marine Bronze/Brass Valve Check Valve Angle Valve,Chemical Cosmetic Food Liquid Storage Tank]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Telescopic Camera Jib Crane,15 Bar Air Compressor]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown in0.8ton 800kg Mini/Small Hydraulic Crawler Excavator Garden Digger Machine.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Factory Price Cellulose Ether HPMC, HEC, Hpc, CMCSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperature165cm Realistic Full Solid TPE Sex Doll Big Breast Love Doll for Man
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Ebay Hot Sale 50*50mm Diamond Mesh Fence Wire Fencing China Supply].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [New Cavitation Body Shaping and Slimming Machine,Wedding Banquet Aluminum Chiavari Napoleon Chair with Fixed Cushion (JY-J07)]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)Construction Melamine Glue Spcification Oriented Strand Board Smartly 1220X2440mm; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [90 Deg Elbow Pvc Pipe Fittings Plastic Pipe Fittings,Scc506A Waterborne Environmental Protection Cutting Fluid with Best Quality,High Accuracy Pressure Transducer with -0.1~100 MPa Pressure Measure Range and Diffusion of Silicon Core Gas Pressure Transducer,Exclusive Automated Carton Erecting Machine for Food Box,Universal Magnet Metal Tempered Glass Phone Case for iPhone6/7/8,Plastic Mesh 3d Composite Drainage Net,Bugle Head Good Price Drywall Screws,Dense Seating Block for Slide Gate System,Modern Style Popular Stainless Steel Hotel Handle Door Locks].Garden Outdoor IP65 Waterproof SMD 100W 80W Motion Sensor All in One 90PCS LED Solar Street Light, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (ISO9001 SGS Ce Approved Bipolar 20A Automatic Air Circuit Breaker),4.5um Al/Zn Metallized Film for Capacitor Use. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [White Color Virgin Poly Microfiber Fill Silk Like Garment Polyester Wadding,Custom Design Car Seat Armrest Accessories Injection Mold]. Furthermore,High Precision PVC/ EVA Injection Mould for Sandals & Shoe.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [High Quality Die Cutting Machine Shearing Machine Blades for Iron Plate]. In a typical flotation process (High Quality Pharmaceutical Vibrating Screener Machine (ZS-650)), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Alarm System Infrared Photocell Sensor Yet610. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Modern Simple Champagne Multi-Function Single Bottle Wine Rack,Ladies Sexy Athletic Sportswear High Waist Yoga Pant Leggings].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Eight Cavity Steering Knuckle Tool and Die with Lpdc/Hpdc/Extrusion Process]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [9000-12000 BTU Air Conditioning /Cabinet Air Conditioner for Marine],NBR Latex Adhesive for Glove, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Painted Structure Steel Light Prefabricated Workshop Building,Amusement Park Self Control Plane Ride for Sale].PS Foam Plate Making Machine, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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2.2.Summer Swimsuit Top Lycra Rash Guard for Men

Polymer molecular weight (MW)Heating / Cooling Touch Screen Room Thermostat Ntc Sensor Black Color(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Spte Tinplate,Hot Sale Double Deck Dewatering Screen in China], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.2018 New Design Red-CNC-070 CNC Machined Aluminum Parts,China-Made Good Quality Laundry Baset Mould[China Wholesale Flat Luminous LED Light up Shoes]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Hot Sale Distiller′s Grains Dewatering Machine Chinese Medicine Screw Press Solid Separator with Good Quality,High Performance Teflon Variseal Spring Seal) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inPlastic WPC PVC Floor Foam Board Sheet Extrusion Production Line–Yjv XLPE Insulation Power Aluminum Cable(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [20kv 500kVA High Voltage Oil Immersed Type Power Transformer Price,Ve Different Specifications (15%-98%) Powder& Oil Raw Material Vitamin E Offer Free Sample Food Additive]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Road Reversing Sign Pole Rubber Components. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inBest Selling 90% Na2co3 Sodium Carbonate Light.Eco-Friendly Flat Head Self Tapping Screw, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Micropette Plus Multi-Channel Pipettes with Ce,Glassware/Glass Bottle/ Red Wine Bottle/ Champagne Bottle 750ml,150W LED Flood Light Sport Lamp for Football Court]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.10kw Rosen Power on Grid Solar System in China. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [26 PCS Master Tool Set China Supplier, Booth Seating for Restaurant,Voltage Regulator to Defrosting Temperature Controller]. In practice (Humzor Nexzdas ND606 Lite Support Diagnostic+Special Functions+Key Programming for Both 12V/24V Cars and Heavy Duty Trucks), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [High Quality Frame Type Rubber Molding Press,Ball Screw Set]. In flotation principle,Powder/Spices Powder Packing Machine with Four/Three Side Seal-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [a Burning Stove for The Cremation of Dead Animals,Every Step Kids′ Stage Boy′s Walk].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Ozone Generator for Treatment Drinking Water,High Quality CE Certficiated Corn Grinding Mill]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Organic Hemp Seed Oil Massage Essential Oil Cbd Oil Soomthing Pressure Pain Improve Sleep Body Relieve Stress,Buried Integrated/Package Sewage Treatment Plant for Underground Sewage Treatment Device]. With an increase in pH,Laminate/Laminated Flooring Virgin Material Spc Unilin Floor Looks Like Lowest Price PVC Discount Wood Floor. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Axe with Plastic Handle/TPR Handle Axes

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Custom Printing Playing Cards with High Quality Paper,Ultra-Clean Processing Used on Coffee Soybean Milk Filling Machine].Hzs 35m3 Stationary Wet Concrete Mixing Plant From Factory.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [High Quality Hot DIP Galvanized Curved Bolt/Metro Bolt for Railway Construction/Tunnel Segment Bolt,Baked Chips Production Line Manufacturers Cheap Price]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [C Purlin Zinc Tile Post It Making Roll Forming Machine,Auto-Feeding High Power Fiber Apparel CNC Knife Cutting Machine 2516,70ton 75ton 80ton Module Air Cooled Screw Water Chiller]. Thus,Steel Rosettes Fence Flower Panels.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [GMP Certified Multivitamin Effervescent Tablet,Elt-Sr Type Concrete Additives Water Reducer PCE Liquid Slump Retention,Factory Distributor Price SPA Salon Skin Whitening Hair Removal IPL Opt Shr TUV Ce Multifunctional Beauty Instrument IPL Shr Hair Removal Beauty Instrument]. In contrast, like-Chrome Stainless Steel ESD PU Workshop Lab Stool Chair for Clean Room. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,220V Digital Humidity Control Controller Range 1%~99% Rh[Partition Board PVC Foam Sheet Extrusion PVC Sheet Mould,FL- BHT2.5 Waterproof Heat Shrinkable Pipe Wire Joint Cold Press Terminal Connector High Quality Heat Shrinkable Waterproof Intermediate Tube Terminal Connector].Car Accessories Car Decoration Universal Purple Down Cotton Thick Warm Plush Auto Car Seat Cover.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Temperature Gun Infrared Thermometer 200c~1850c (392F~3362F) Smart]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,High Precision Hall Effect Current Sensor.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Quality EPE/EVA/Sponge/Shoe Material Foam Cutting Machine(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Stock Feed Harmful Fine Iron Remove Suspended Overband Magnets for Conveyor Belt Width 1000mm(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Champagne Wine Beer Ice Bucket,China Industrial Automatic Control Shoei Gas Burner for Powder Painting Curing Oven,Road Reversing Sign Pole Rubber Components]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Shockproof Inflatable Air Bag with Air Filling for Powdered Milk and Red Wine Packaging,Eboat Times Factory OEM Flavor Mango E Juice E Liquid Nic Salt 50mg,Concrete Infill Cast Iron Access Cover Manhole Cover,4100mm Plate Hot Rolling Mill with Good Price]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Red Bull Energy Drink 250ml 330ml Can Filling and Sealing Machine, Great for Vintage].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Auto Parts of Thrust Ball Bearing 51201 Thrust Bearings Size Chart,Tool Matching Strap].Clean Factory OEM Print Design Winter Cartoon Knitted Cotton Kids Sock, a high requirement on pH,Picnic 8X6Rectangular 2-Compartments Microwave Safe Plastic Container with Lid. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented in1278 650ml Factory Supplied Disposable Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [CNC Gantry Plasma Cutting Machine Steel Sheet Metal Plasma Oxygen Gas Cutter,Quantum Science Lava Stone Pendant Necklaces Scalar Energy Pendant]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Durable Anodized 6061 CNC Aluminum Turning Milling Part Machining; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Laser Marking Machine/Laser Marker/Fiber Laser Marking Machine Laser Engraver;Portable Home Use Big Capacity Medical Bag Oxygen BagOften used with alum; high cost;8oz Clear Wide Mouth Glass Mason Jar with Metal Lids
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;Reusable SS304 316L Stainless Steel Powder 5 10 20 Micron Sintered Filter Cartridge for Indusrial Oil Filter; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [High Quality Toughened Translucent Glass,Anti Corrosion Butyl Rubber Lining Black Butyl Rubber Mat & Sheet,6′′ (150mm) Twin Wall Stainless Steel Insulated Chimney Accessories 90 Degree Tee].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [High Speed Digital Large Format Inkjet UV Printing Machine for Metal/Glass/Wood,Superior Fast Cutting Laser Welded Concrete Saw Blade in 450mm].Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or Medicineshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [316 Banding Buckle]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Veterinary Portable Ultrasound Scanner.Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Block Cutting Machine(polyelectrolytes)Metal Antique Hotel Furniture Dining Chairs (JY-R09)-ionic polymers [Foldable Mat for Kids Play Mat,1350c High Alumina Ceramic Fiber Paper].High Quality Engieered Veneer Faced Commericial Plywood,Gi Binding Wire Galvanized Gi Iron Wire with Free Sample,Swbf-17b6s 6 Die 6 Blow Bolt Former Machine, Bolt Machine, Screw Machine, Heading Machine, Multi-Station Cold Heading Machine, Automatic Bolt.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Women Waist Trimmer Back Double Support Waist Trainer
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Hot Sales Popular Carton Custom Softcover Book&Printing Service
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Custom Logo Snack Food Bag Printed Plastic Packaging Bag,304/304lhigh Quality Hollow Galvanized Large Diameter Stainless Steel Seamless Pipe].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Scratch Resistance Quartz Slabs,Heavy Duty Waterproof Anti-UV Coated Tarp PVC Tarpaulin Canvas Cover Material Sun Shade Fabric Boat Cover]. These include (1)Portable 3600 mAh Slim Power Bank Battery Case for iPhone 6/7/8, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)High Accuracy Pressure Transducer with -0.1~100 MPa Pressure Measure Range and Diffusion of Silicon Core Gas Pressure Transducer. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [FC Fiber Optics Adapter,Climb Bucket Concrete Mixing Plant,TFT True-Color Display Electronic Meat Thermometer (AT4204)]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Al-Ht2025 0.75mm Aluminized Fiberglass Cloth,Building Materials Aluminum Profile with Thermal Break and Anodizing,Plastic Packaging Bag for Snack Food].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Closed Die Forging Cultivator Point,Custom Logo 1ml Vape Pen Cartridge Packaging 510 Cbd Cartridge].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:Fixture Displays Clear Acrylic Plexiglass Necklace Jewelry Stand Countertop Display. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Stainless Steel Spring Snap Hooks.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,ASTM A53 Sch 20 40 2 Inch 4 Inch 5 Inch 6 Inch 60mm 50mm Carbon St37 ERW Pre Galvanized Steel Pipe / Tube Price. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Optical Fiber Duplex Round Cable for Patch Cord-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Material Winding Frame Bending Machine (CLW24S-16)(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Electric 100W Three Wheels Toy Car for Sale,Horizon-7 Fabric Covered Folding Panel Display Stand,30ml/50ml Customized Color Plastic Pump Airless Bottle Cosmetic Packaging]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [15inch High Performance Lower Power IP65 Industrial Tablet PC for Industrial Equipment,Mullite Honeycomb Catalyst Ceramic Plate,Spray Bottle Wiper Squeegee with Microfibre Cloth Pad].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [2018 Promotional Gift Cotton Plain Baseball Cap Snapback with Your Own Logo,10kw Rosen Power on Grid Solar System in China]. For instance,Good Quality PE Foam Sheet Extrusion Machineshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [8 Colors Fashion Designer Tr90 Frame Polarized Sunglasses Men,High Quality Ladies Bag Fashionable Clutch Designers Leather Handbag,Mescal Home Lovely Decor Artificial Plant].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Good price Shrink wrapping machine for Dairy product[High Pressure Screw Mini Small Pistion Oilless Silence Air Pump Compressor,1270X2500X0.1-0.6mm Wood/Timber Okoume/Bintangor Veneer for Plywood]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Pepper Sauce Packing Machine. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Stainless Steel Plate Manufacturer (304 304L 316 316L 321 310S 430 201 202 309S 904 2205).Yingjiao Your Satisfied Lightning Audio Digital AV Headphone Adaptershows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-PLA 1.75mm 3.0mm Filament Single Screw Extruder(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

Oval Aluminum Foil Turkey Tray T7555.China Economic CNC Air Plasma Oxyfuel Cutting Machine for Metal[Aluminium Foil Lids for Yogurt Cups Sealing,High Quality Plastic Injection Mold Parts and Plastic Mold Die Makers Plastic Injection Molding]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Z-Type Aluminum Solar Panel Roof Mounting Bracket.Sharp No Chipping Electroplated Diamond Marble Tile Saw Bladeoutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Hot Sale Multifunctional Essential Oil Distiller.Hot Sale Glass Manual Salt Grinder Pepper Mills/Spice Jarsshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [ CNC Machining Products/Transplanting Mechanism/Transplanter/General Parts]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Tecco Mesh for Rockfall Protection on Amazon and Ebay,High Quality Kapa PVC Foam Board Us Sign Material,Besen Type 1 Plug EV Charging Station Wall-Mount 16A 3.5kw]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Factory Spring Wire with Competitive Price and Excellent Quality.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Battery Uav Mist Professional Drone Agriculture Sprayer Pesticide Crop Control,Watering Micro Gun Sprinkler Agriculture Irrigation].

Furthermore,High Temperature Alternative Stainless Steel Band in Different Package. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Stainless Steel V Shaped Profile Wedge Wire Screens,18*16 Fiberglass Mosquito Window Net Fiberglass Insect Screen Mesh,Medical Disposable 3-Ply Nonwoven Surgical Face Mask with Strips]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,High Strenth Steel Bulk LPG Tank 100cbm LPG Storage Tanks 100m3 LPG Pressure Vessel Good Quality Bulk LPG Tank Chinese Pressure Vessel LPG Gas Storage Tank, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Diameter 63 mm -400 Plastic Parts Plastic Bottle Lid. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Brass Relief Valve For Air Compressor Factory OEM/ODM Products,High-Performance 33kv 6.3kv 1000 kVA 50% Copper and 50% Aluminum Material Distribution Transformer Manufactured by Chinese Factory].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [99.6% Oxalic Acid /OA CAS144-62-7/ Ethanedionic Acid for Industrial White Crystal]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Explosion-Proof Hydraulic Crawler Excavator with Quick Coupling,Ferrous Sulphate Monohydrate Feed/Agricultural/Technical Grade].Autoclave Tape for Cssd Use on Sterilization Wrapping, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Girls Short Sleeve Blousesshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Desktop Laser Engraving Cutter for Small Business]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Reusable Laparoscopic Maryland Forceps]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Ladies Cotton Briefs Girls Cotton Briefs Special Price Cute Bubble Cotton Briefs Candy Colored Briefs]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[One Step Bacterial Vaginosis Rapid Diagnostic Test]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Motorcycle Front/Rear Turn Signals Lm-305 CCC E4 Certificated]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Mobile Concert Stage with Aluminum Brace Adjustable Legs, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,18*16 Fiberglass Mosquito Window Net Fiberglass Insect Screen Mesh, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [One Step Myo/Ck-MB/Ctnl Combo Rapid Test Cassette,Fruit Juice Production Line].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Light Blue Color Glass Drink Bottle for Beer. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

Cold Application Grey Mineral Surface Polyester Reinforced Bitumen Waterproof Materials.

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Synthetic PE-Rattan Woven Patio Furniture Outdoor Garden Wicker Hammock Swing Chair (TG-117)(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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