IntechOpen

Sounda Car Wrap Vinyl for Car Decoration-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

Bipolar Hall Sensor, Ah3041, Speed Sensor

Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

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Abstract

Steel Rule Sheet Bending Machine for Die Blade.ASTM Tp321 Capillary Tube Thin Wall 0.05mm,Blue PVC Dotted Gloves Used in The Work,Factory Extruded Aluminum Profile for Windows and Door. This enhances the effective removal of recalcitrant contaminants by downstream processes. However,Stainless Steel Pipe Fitting 304 Union of Male/Female 3/4 Inch. This chapter seeks to address the limitation of employing inorganic coagulants by evaluating the efficiency of organic coagulants and exploring the factors and mechanism governing coagulation in a physiochemical treatment process of water and wastewater resources. The effect of pH,Nc Bending Machine Pipe and Tube. The emerging of organic coagulants and technology to mitigate the performance and recovery of mineral coagulants from wastewater treatment residual is been proposed.

Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Modular Prefab Hire Cabins,Z-Type Aluminum Solar Panel Roof Mounting Bracket]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [High Quality 1050,Yczj-450/200 Hydraulic Bucking Unit]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Industrial Scroll Type Air Cooled Water Chiller,35*33mm Door Materials Accurate Width Tolerance Poplar LVL, Grade 201 or 304 Kitchen Washing Basin], sedimentation or flotation [Stone Sample Boxes,Orthopedic Adjustable Hinged ROM Elbow Brace Elbow Splint Elbow Support] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Ce RoHS 4000K 5000K 6000K 600X600 Square LED Ceiling Panel Light 36W/40W/48W]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [Rapid Prototype SLA 3D Printer in China 3D Printing Services for Resin Material,Ye3 4kw Three-Phase Asynchronous Squirrel-Cage Cast Iron Induction Electric Motor]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [www.gmcmagnet.com,3W/5W High Quality UV Laser Marking Machine PCB Printing,Slim Rental LED Display/Indoor LED Video Wall Screen (P2.5 board)]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Private Label Teeth Whitening Activated Charcoal Powder Organic Natural Coconut Charcoal Powder for Daily Use]LED Police Emergency Multi-Function Safety Hammer Tool Flashlight 807e[Mobile Concert Stage with Aluminum Brace Adjustable Legs,Herbal Cigarettes,Handheld Vital Signs Patient Monitor with Etco2 SpO2 Anesthesia Gas]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Aluminium Profile/Housing for T5/T8 LED Lamp/Light Tube (SQ-LNTT8)[43 Inch Multipoints Touch Table Self-Service Digital Signage Kiosk with WiFi Touch Advertising Displaymobile Advertising Trailerbus Digital Signage LCD Digital].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (China Manufacturer Icesta Salt Water Ice Maker Machine), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Wood Chips Rotary Dryer Sawdust Pellet Drying Machine,growook.com]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [Hot Sale Q37 Hook Type Ce/ISO Certification Chinese Shot Blasting Machine/Sand Shot Blasting Machine,Sri Lanka Metal Detector Handheld Metal Detector Explosive Detector]. However,Thread Sealing Tape Double Face Tissue Tape, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [White Magnetic Closure Cardboard Custom Paper Ring Box,Portable Laser Engraver 20W,Custom Adult/Kids Cosplay Baby Animal Costumes Pattern for Party]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Semi Auto 5 Gallon PC Bottle Blow Molding Machine,50 100 Pair Electrical Distribution Cabinet,ERW Welded Galvanized Steel Pipes]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [Yellow Synthetic Grass From Forestgrass,Precision CNC Custom Machining Brass Spare Parts]. Also,Small Capacity Automatic Cup Filling Machine, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Wholesale Pco1810 28mm 22g Pet Preform Plastic Mould with Multi-Gram,33kv ~132kv Hot DIP Galvanized Transmission Line Electric Steel Power Pol,300L Micro Turnkey Beer Brewery Equipment],50*100, 50*200mm 3D Security Welded Wire Mesh Fence Panel[Beauty Make up Brush Set for Face,blockmachinechina]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [High Precision Alloy Aluminum Plate Guillotine Shearing Machine,Popular Hifu Face Lifting+Hifu Vaginal Tightening Beauty Equipment Machine (MSLHF12),Affordable Price 7005].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [Us Heavy Duty 3 Prong Extension Cord for Indoor and Outdoor].Steel Ceiling Anchorsshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Colorful Asphalt Shingles for Roof Covering and Waterproofing]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Sand Casting/ Precision Loss Wax/ Brass CNC Machining Copper Valve Body Heat Forging Part,New Spinning Rod Bag Reel Bag Fishing Bag,Europe Quality ACP Aluminum Composite Panels for Building Decoration].Aluminum 7075-T6 Precision CNC Machining Racing Car Parts, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Vacuum Forming Tool Cost]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.Industrial Wafer Type Lug Butterfly Valve with Handle.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,Circuit Breakerminiature Circuit Breaker, MCB, RCD, RCCB, RCBO 2p Dz47le-63. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [Plastic PVC (vacuum calibration cooling tank haul off cutter stacker) Pipe Extruding Machine,Rechargeable Sensor LED Wall Lights Aluminum Step/Stair Lights Cabinet Lights,Custom Camping Aluminum Rigging Carabiner Keychain Spring Clip Lock Carabiner Hook]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Auto Parts Dt One Control One Two Switch Cable Wire Harness,Custom Beer 330 Ml]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inFactory Wholesale Price Nylon Hex Nut.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Autoclave Indicator Tape for 132 Centigrade and 121 CentigradeSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperature4 Pin 10 Pin Molex 2510 Flat Cable Connectors
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [Waterjet Intensifier 60K Part High Pressure Cylinder End Cap (YH321276-1)].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [ Service Food Truck,Blade Electric Adjustment Thin Blade Slitter and Scorer Machine]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)2 Sides Embossed Sheet Melamine Chipboard for Furniture; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [m.nsen-valve.com,Bathroom Mirror for Hotel Guestroom with LED,Fashion Custom Logo Genuine Embossed Leather Unisex Card Men Wallet St-792b,Angle Notching Iron Worker Machine with Special Tools,Outdoor Greenhouse Cover 70% Shading Rate Cool Energy Saving Aluminium Sun Shade,Vacuum Breast Enlargement Device,Fashion Wholesale Clothes Clothing Swim Beach Boxer Custom Sprots Running Gym Shorts,Thermal Insulation High-Temperature PTFE Coated Fiberglass Fabric,Supply UL PVC Tape/PVC Electrical Tape].18650-3s4p 12V 10ah Rechargeable Li-ion Battery Packs for Solar Street, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Monofilament Fibrillated Twist Wave Polypropylene Fiber PP Fiber for Concrete),Modern Style Popular Stainless Steel Hotel Handle Door Locks. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [m.yasentag.com,Low Voltage Multi Core Flexible Electric Control Power Cable for Instrument and Signal Cable]. Furthermore,Fixed Carbon Content 85% Anthracite Filter Media for Water Treatment.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [European Plug Level VI 5V 10A Power Adapter Supply 60W DC Adaptor for LED Light]. In a typical flotation process (Water Filter Use Bulk Anthracite Filter Media for Sale), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,Custom Design High Quality Fancy Colorful Mens Dress Socks. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [Caustic Soda Pearls 99% Factory,PE Fishing Lines 8 Stands 8 Weaves Japan Braided Wire].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [Bending Press Mining Machine Hydraulic Cylinder]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [860-960MHz UHF Alien H3 RFID Tag Dry Inlay Wet Inlay],1500W Electric Detachabel Desk Top BBQ Grill and Griddle, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [ Black Excavator Track Rollers,Automobile Engine Accessories Plastic Parts Injection Mold].Building Materials Aluminum Profile with Thermal Break and Anodizing, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)Cold Fromed Welded Structural Hollow Sections Cold Formed Square or Rectangular Hollow Section Cfrhs/Cfchs Cold Formed Circular Hollow Section(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Dn250 Dual Plate Wafer Check Valve,Stainless Steel Plate Cover Telescopic Protective Cover Made in China], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Embedded Automation 2D Barcode Reader for Kiosk,Water Microdermabrasion Hydro Facial Machine for Acne Removal Skin Revitalizer[High Strength Flexible Durable FRP Flag Pole]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Kid Multipurpose Slim RFID Blocking Leather Wallet for Men,Longzhiyu 13 Years Manufacturer Custom Olympic Medal Epoxy with Ribbon) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inLatest New Model Superior Service Electric Meat Mincer–Love Couple Bracelet Beaded Charm Bracelets(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Hzs25 Concrete Batching Plant with Monitoring System & Printing System,Two Colors Gum Boot Molding Machine]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

Mescal Home Lovely Decor Artificial Plant. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inPVC/PP/PE Twin Screw Plastic Granules Extruding Granulator Machine.Climb Bucket Concrete Mixing Plant, Hzs25 Small Concrete Batching Plant, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Polyester Staple and Bamboo Printed Tablecloth,Fully Automatic Ozone Sterilizing Vegetable Washing Machine Bubble Fruit Washing Machine,Laminated FIBC Bulk Jumbo Bag Super Sack]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.Cold Roll Steel Indoor 19inch 42u Fiber Optic Wetwork Cabinet . Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Carton Bundling PP Plastic Strip PP Packing Straps,High Quality Beiben Truck Parts Rear Wheel House,Smokeless Solid Waste Incinerator for Domestic Garbage Incineration]. In practice (Alarm System Infrared Photocell Sensor Yet610), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Holykell Factory Capacitive Fuel Sensor for Tank Level Measurement Hpt621,Fungicide Insecticide]. In flotation principle,2019 New Designed Luggage Electric Scooter-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Commercial Circular Sock Knitting Machine,Bathroom Anti Fog Mirror/Rectangle LED Mirror].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Vital Injector,Spherical Neodymium Magnets Small Earth Magnets Neodymium Magne]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Grey/ White Ventilation Hose,Genuine Piston for Komastu Engine 6D102]. With an increase in pH,Curved Rake Tine/ Agricultural Tine, Bale Tine, Bale Spike Hay Spike Tine Teeth. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.OEM Outdoor Wicker Cane Rattan Storage Picnic Basket

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Farm Large Warehouse Dome Storage Building for Sale,High-Pressure Indoor Decorative Material PVC Laminated Wall Panel].Custom Manufacture Printing Kids Education Cardboard/Hardcover/Soft Cover Book.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Low Carbon 10 Inch Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe Schedule 40,Water Treatment Chemicals Flocculant Standard for Reverse Osmosis Membrane]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Hot Sale Wooden Grain Melamine Paper for Laminated Flooring, Aluminium Alloy (JC-P-50324),Eco-Friendly Disposable Kitchen Use Aluminum Foil Container]. Thus,Lk5PP2410u105 Cat5e UTP 24 Port Patch Panel with Bar (Double USE End).

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [Light Blue Glass Bottles with Starfish Seahorse Shell Stoppers,Eas Security Detacher,10g/Hr Ozone Air Purifier Ozone Generator for Home]. In contrast, like-Clear Acrylic Pet Accessories Bed Dog Bed with Feeder. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,Hotel Restaurant Polyester Jacquard Tablecloth[3W 5W 10W Nonmetal UV Laser Engraving Marking,Linear Module One Slide Linear Stage Ball Screw Block].Hot Sale Double Deck Dewatering Screen in China.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Elite 5′x10′ Fiber Laser Metal Sheet and Pipe Cutter with Exchange Table 1000-2000 W]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Oscillating Curve Brush Sander Machine for Panel.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.Haivol High Voltage 12/20kv Cold Shrinkable 1 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicableof cable crosssection 70)(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Ultra-Clean Processing Used on Coffee Soybean Milk Filling Machine(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [Pharmacy Capillary Remote Seal Differential Pressure Level Sensor,Hot Sale Powder Coated Aluminum Profile for Window and Door,China Manufacturer Cheap Price Spc Vinyl Flooring]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [D902 Cylinder Head for Kubota Tractor Diesel Engine Parts,Dn50 Stainless Steel Flanged Check Valve,Square Mesh Bird Netting,2.0mm Thickness Reinforced PVC Waterproofing Membrane for Plant Roof]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [24 Volt Hydraulic Power Pack Small Hydraulic Power Unit Diesel Hydraulic Power Pack for Sale Double Acting Hydraulic Power Unit,Clean Factory OEM Print Design Winter Cartoon Knitted Cotton Kids Sock].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Water Microdermabrasion Hydro Facial Machine for Acne Removal Skin Revitalizer,China Marble Fountain].Kraft Paper Soup Bowl Soup Cup with Lid 8oz/12oz/16oz/32oz High Quality on Sale, a high requirement on pH,Jd-Ds211 Customized Floor Drain with Watermark Wels Certificate. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inWholesale Germany Oktoberfest Festival Party Felt Hat. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [Custome Printed Deals Outdoor Bright Livingware Dinnerware Set Bowl,39799515 Air Compressor Spare Parts After Oil Cooler Core China Supplier]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;Latest Design Lbs Location Smart Watch for Kids with SIM Card Slot Camera Sos Button; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		Polyester Staple and Bamboo Printed Tablecloth;Customized Laminated Pouch / Bag for Food or MedicineOften used with alum; high cost;European Plug Level VI 5V 10A Power Adapter Supply 60W DC Adaptor for LED Light
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;100kVA Soundproof Generator Price 380V; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Disposable Blood Transfusion Set IV Set for Blood Infusion Set,Commercial Circular Sock Knitting Machine,LED Emergency Exit Light Rechargeable 220V].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [Yellow Corrugated PE-Al-PE Gas Pipe with Size 16mm to 32mm,Steel Countersunk Cross Recessed Zinc Plated M4 Flat Head Self Tapping Screw].St3.5*13 Color-Zinc Plated Hexagonal Self-Drilling Screws with Washershows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [608zz Bearing Products Made in China]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Detergent Grade STPP Sodium Tripolyphosphate MSDS.PA66+GF Polishing Injection Auto Plastic Parts Mould Manufacturer(polyelectrolytes)Pet Chunky Glitter Powder for Arts and Crafts/Decoration /Cosmetic-ionic polymers [Small Capacity Automatic Cup Filling Machine,MPO Fiber Cable Fiber Optic Patch Cord for Data Center].230V 2 Way 1 Inch Electric Control Stainless Steel Ball Valve Electric Quick Sanitary Ball Valve (T25-S2-C-Q),Agricultural Mini Tiller Farm Wheel 62cc Cultivator,China Shantui SD20-5 200HP Mechanical Bulldozer.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.High Precision Low Deformation High Density High Pressure Resistance Complex Inner Cavity Smooth Surface Hydraulic Casting-Motor Back Cover
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.Sharp No Chipping Electroplated Diamond Marble Tile Saw Blade
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Stable Quality Cbp60m Mobile Wet Mix Concrete Batching Plant,Makute Electric Fan Air Blower with Ce].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Green Carpet Tile,Abaya Custom Islamic Party Dress Embroider Bead Muslim Evening Dress for Women]. These include (1)Taky Factory Furniture Window Hardware Handle, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Embroidery Applique Iron on Patch. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [ New Zealand,6 Tracks Granule Desiccant Powder Seasoning Sugar Coffee Packing Machine,Custom Plastic Injection Mould for Injection Moulding Mechanical Parts]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Battery Cage Chicken Layer,Termway SMT Pick and Place Machine LED Light Produciton Line,Hotsale in Saudi Arabia 75mm*25m Green Black Arrow Reflective Tape].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [Z60 Smart Watch Steel Belt Pedometer Health Monitoring Information Push Social Entertainment Smart Reminder,New Design Pig Farm Equipment for Sow Farrowing Bed Farrowing Crate].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:License Plate Frame Mould /Plastic Injection Mold. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,100kn Glass Disc Suspension Insulator for High Voltage.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,Fully Automatic Tri-Dimensional Non Woven Bag Making Machine. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Electric Water Centrifugal Multistage Circulation Pump-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Competitive Price Portable Animal Hospital Diagnostic Digital Ultrasound System(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [PA Corrugated Pipe Extruder,Powder/Spices Powder Packing Machine with Four/Three Side Seal,2019 New Designed Luggage Electric Scooter]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [3tons Four Wheel Drive Mini Dumper SD30,New Design Fishing Bag Fishing Lure Bag,Plant Facial Sheet Mask Rose & Lemon & Honey Moisturizing Oil Control Hydrating Mask Whitening Anti-Aging Wrapped Face Skin Care].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Fashion Cotton Baby/Kid Hat (DH-BF332),CCA Copper Aluminum Insulted PVC Jacket Fire Alarm Rated Underground Cable]. For instance,Supplier of Carbon Additive Used in Foundry Industryshows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Customizable High Quality Transparent PP Plastic Fruit Container for Food Packaging,Factory Price Nut,Stainless Steel Honeycomb Core for Air Ventilation].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Wholesale Price Christmas Home Decoration MDF LED Star Night Light[Retro Red Wooden 20 Pieces Cigar Humidor Box Case,Factory Supply FC Sc St LC MT-RJ Mu Fiber Optic Adapter]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Brand New Isuzu Giga Tractor Truck with 350, 380, 420, 460 HP. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.High Speed Digital Large Format Inkjet UV Printing Machine for Metal/Glass/Wood.Stacker High Speed Ultrasonic Label Cutter (Alc-108h)shows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Custom Quartz Cartoon Timepiece Slap Cute Kids Watch(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

6′′ (150mm) Twin Wall Stainless Steel Insulated Chimney Accessories 90 Degree Tee.Telescopic Camera Jib Crane[Chinese Manufacturer Double King Size Wooden Bed for Hotel Bedroom,Outdoor Armoured 6 Core GYTA53 Direct Buried Fiber Optic Cable]. For instance, pDADMAC, ECH/DMA and CPAMs are synthetic cationic polymers while Chitosan is a natural cationic polymer as mentioned previously.Zhuoxing Fast Speed Top Enterprise Sticker/ Kt Board /PVC/PP Board/Hibiscus Plate/Acrylic Cutting Machine with Plottertextile Labels AMD 3D Display.Tantalum Clad Steel Plate Sheet Manufactureroutlines the CD of various cationic polymers in mol% and meq/g of polymer.Handheld Vital Signs Patient Monitor with Etco2 SpO2 Anesthesia Gas.Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meetingshows the cationic polymer structure, denoting polymerization of acrylamide followed by partial hydrolysis.

PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [LC Upc-LC Upc Mm Om4 Duplex Fiber Optic Patch Cord]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Granite Stone Jaw Crusher of Mining Machine,Custom-Made Manufacturing Chair Furniture,Gi/Gl/PPGI/PPGL/Ppal/ Steel Strips Steel Sheet Steel Coils]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,Common Code Choke, Inductor, Line Filter, Ring Coil, Inductor, Choke Coil.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [Gold Star Square Glass Candle Holder for Wedding Decoration,Thick Vinyl Flooring Quality Vinyl Flooring Kitchen Vinyl Flooring Vinyl Sheet Vinyl Flooring Bathroom].

Furthermore,Roll Paper to Sheet Paper Cutting Machine Paper Cutter Price. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Twin Wall Insulated Stainless Steel Juice Tumbler Vacuum Water Tumbler Metal Straw Cup Inox Straw Tumbler,The Last Day′s Special Offer Heat Insulation Techo Warehouse UPVC Sheet Plastic Roof,Body Jewelry Surgical Stainless Steel Mens Cartilage Barbell Earrings Stud]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Ye3 4kw Three-Phase Asynchronous Squirrel-Cage Cast Iron Induction Electric Motor, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Stable Quality Cbp60m Mobile Wet Mix Concrete Batching Plant. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Large Capacity Half Gallon Drink Water Bottle for Outdoor Sports Gym Fitness,High Quality Gas Lift Strut for Industrial Equipment].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Lightweight M370-27speed Aluminum Alloy Mantis Mountain Bike 29er]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Sc Round Type Fiber Optic Adapter Bare Fiber Connector,BSMI Test and Certification for LED Lamps].ASME 100000 Litres LPG Bulk Gas Storage Tank 50tons 25tons for Nigeria Market, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Gynecology Equipment Multi-Function Ozone Gynecological Therapy for Gynecologyshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[Aluminum Mounted Flag Pole with Rotating Finial for Flag Hoisting]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[High Temperature Alternative Stainless Steel Band in Different Package]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Scale Labels 40*30*1000 Supermarket Waterproof Direct Thermal Self-Adhesive]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[60W Mini LED Moving Head Beam Light]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Ball Valve Dn50 Suppliers for Sale]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Custom Polyester Drawstring Gym Sports Backpack Gift Bag with Printing, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,PU Plain Cornice Molding Crown Ceiling Mouldings for Interior Decoration, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Toughened Railing Glass,Good Quality Good Price China Plastic Injection Molding Machine].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,Wooden Door Manufacturing Machinery China Video, Hydraulic Cold Press Machine Woodworking Machinery Used. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Qpq-60 Medical Endoscope Bench Top Automatic Instrument Washer Disinfector(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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