IntechOpen

Manufacturer Hot Sale Tube Making Stainless Steel Pipe Mill-reviewed chapter

Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment

Manufacture Supply Low Price Agar Agar

Submitted: June 13th 2018Reviewed: January 19th 2019Published: April 3rd 2019

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556

Caustic Soda Pearls 99% Factory>Bending Press Mining Machine Hydraulic Cylinder>860-960MHz UHF Alien H3 RFID Tag Dry Inlay Wet Inlay

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Abstract

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Keywords

  • coagulation
  • organic polymers
  • water and wastewater
  • purification

1. Introduction

The deterioration of the natural source of fresh water supply correlates with the increase in global social economic growth and activities, which generates wastewater with a high content of pollutants [Stainless Steel Plate Cover Telescopic Protective Cover Made in China,High Strength Flexible Durable FRP Flag Pole]. Due to the detrimental effects of pollution in wastewater, water-related technologies and materials development have become the utmost priority in most of the wastewater industrials [Autumn Girl Leisure Trench Coat Factory OEM/ODM Products,Latest New Model Superior Service Electric Meat Mincer]. Among the numerous purification methods, integrating coagulation along with filtration [Hzs25 Concrete Batching Plant with Monitoring System & Printing System,PVC/PP/PE Twin Screw Plastic Granules Extruding Granulator Machine,Polyester Staple and Bamboo Printed Tablecloth], sedimentation or flotation [Gold Grinding Machine,Fully Automatic Ozone Sterilizing Vegetable Washing Machine Bubble Fruit Washing Machine] have been well-known pre-treatment techniques in water and wastewater settings where water quality is cardinal [Laminated FIBC Bulk Jumbo Bag Super Sack]. However, a variation of inflow water quality and lack of optimized treatment facilities result in decreasing the treatability efficiency with the incurred cost of production [High Quality Beiben Truck Parts Rear Wheel House,Smokeless Solid Waste Incinerator for Domestic Garbage Incineration]. Chemical purification process, well known as coagulation, even though it’s essential in wastewater settings, sometimes is seen to be an expensive technology due to the cause of cost of chemical usage involved [2018 New Arrival Leggins,Alarm System Infrared Photocell Sensor Yet610,Holykell Factory Capacitive Fuel Sensor for Tank Level Measurement Hpt621]. This method involves the precipitation of the soluble metal ions by using coagulants. Subsequently, the long-term application of metal-based coagulants (aluminum and iron) [Commercial Circular Sock Knitting Machine]Dubai Laser Marking System for Marking Pens[Bathroom Anti Fog Mirror/Rectangle LED Mirror,Nut And Bolt Supplier & Factory,Vital Injector]. This has resulted in most effluent not complying with the stringent Environmental Protection Agency’Water Honey Square Cameron FC UPVC PE Harga DIN Crane Gate Valve Parts 4 Inch Malaysia 75mm[Spherical Neodymium Magnets Small Earth Magnets Neodymium Magne].

In a typical wastewater treatment plant (Genuine Piston for Komastu Engine 6D102), a mixture of inorganic and organic polymer additives are usually employed as a heterocoagulation technique [Farm Large Warehouse Dome Storage Building for Sale,Motor Rotor]. This is to accelerate the agglomeration and coalescing of weighted particles to be separated from the water either by sedimentation or flotation techniques [High-Pressure Indoor Decorative Material PVC Laminated Wall Panel,Low Carbon 10 Inch Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe Schedule 40]. However,Dingchen-1880mm 5tpd Toilet Paper Towel Making Machine, food, and the agricultural processing industries contain organics, suspended and emulsified oil and grease that prefer to float than settle [Hot Sale Wooden Grain Melamine Paper for Laminated Flooring, Aluminium Alloy (JC-P-50324),Wholesale Custom Fashion Colorful Happy Cotton Mens Dress Socks]. Also, to enhance dewatering and advanced treatment of sewage which includes the removal of phosphorus, the utilization of polymers has become a very common practice [Eco-Friendly Disposable Kitchen Use Aluminum Foil Container,Light Blue Glass Bottles with Starfish Seahorse Shell Stoppers,10g/Hr Ozone Air Purifier Ozone Generator for Home]. Although, coagulant chemicals and its derivatives are very resourceful in wastewater treatment settings, they may alter the characteristics of the effluents in terms of its physiochemical properties [3W 5W 10W Nonmetal UV Laser Engraving Marking,12mm Ball Screw]. Also,Red Bull Energy Drink 250ml 330ml Can Filling and Sealing Machine, for instance in the application of hydroxide precipitation [Linear Module One Slide Linear Stage Ball Screw Block,Elite 5′x10′ Fiber Laser Metal Sheet and Pipe Cutter with Exchange Table 1000-2000 W,Hot Sale Powder Coated Aluminum Profile for Window and Door],Wholesale 16oz Custom Beer Pint Glass Gift Box[China Manufacturer Cheap Price Spc Vinyl Flooring,Load 1600kg Small Machine Room Bed Elevator]. In response to this, Donnan membrane technology which requires a lower operating pressure than others has been one of the fields tested technique in the wastewater treatment settings. However, the cost of the membrane is one of the setbacks [D902 Cylinder Head for Kubota Tractor Diesel Engine Parts,Dn50 Stainless Steel Flanged Check Valve,2.0mm Thickness Reinforced PVC Waterproofing Membrane for Plant Roof].

Figure 1.

Schematic flow chart of a typical sewage treatment plant adapted from [13].

As some of the limitations associated with inorganic based coagulants are been mentioned, this study focuses on the option for the natural and composite inorganic-organic polymer to maximize the treatability performance in the wastewater settings. Therefore, the goal is to evaluate the efficiency of organic polymers as coagulant agents for the treatment of water and wastewater and also to provide an alternative option to metal salts for the chemical purification process. This is done by exploring the use of organic polymer coagulant techniques as compared to metal-based salt coagulants in existing conventional treatment methods on the basis of effectiveness. Furthermore, to identify some of the operating conditions that affect chemical purification process.

2. Chemical purification process

Chemical treatment using metal salts of iron and aluminum is widely applied in several wastewater treatment industries as primary treatments for the removal of particulate and organic matter effectively [24 Volt Hydraulic Power Pack Small Hydraulic Power Unit Diesel Hydraulic Power Pack for Sale Double Acting Hydraulic Power Unit].Round Type Thermic-Welded Tight Bellow Covers Suitable for High Temperaturesshows a typical chemical treatment process for both wastewater and drinking water settings, which usually consists of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation or flotation [Clean Factory OEM Print Design Winter Cartoon Knitted Cotton Kids Sock]. Coagulation is an indispensable mechanism that promotes the aggregation of the suspended solids, which are mostly responsible for turbidity, color, and taste and odor removal [Water Microdermabrasion Hydro Facial Machine for Acne Removal Skin Revitalizer,Wholesale Germany Oktoberfest Festival Party Felt Hat,Custome Printed Deals Outdoor Bright Livingware Dinnerware Set Bowl].N&L Luxury Home Furniture Modular Kitchen Cabient, thereby hastening the gravitational settling or flotation process for the removal of contaminants [Oregon 82-407 Cub Cadet Quill Mandrel Spindle Assembly for 918-04461 618-04456]. The spontaneous forming of flocs in suspension is term as flocculation. This is usually applicable in water purification and sewage treatment. The cationic polyelectrolytes have been the most viable flocculants.50-500tph Mine Stone Crusher Machine for Sand Making Machine.

Figure 2.

Physicochemical treatment process [24].

Also,35*33mm Door Materials Accurate Width Tolerance Poplar LVL. However, there are several types of coagulants which show the different potential application in treating drinking water or wastewater [39799515 Air Compressor Spare Parts After Oil Cooler Core China Supplier,Disposable Blood Transfusion Set IV Set for Blood Infusion Set,LED Emergency Exit Light Rechargeable 220V]. Due to the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater, it is essential for purification systems to be well established and optimized [Yellow Corrugated PE-Al-PE Gas Pipe with Size 16mm to 32mm,Led 31pcs 10w Auto Light]. Ideally, the suitable operation conditions required depends on the characteristics of the wastewater and the coagulants, as well as the physical properties as shown inSteel Countersunk Cross Recessed Zinc Plated M4 Flat Head Self Tapping Screw.

Coagulant characteristicsMOW characteristicsPhysical characteristics
Coagulant typeWater qualityFlotation/settling time
Magnetic Wireless Headset Metal Sports Bluetooth Headphone in-Ear Earphone Tws Wireless Earbuds Mini Bluetooth Stereo Headphone Mobile EarphoneSuspended solidsMixing intensity
Coagulant qualityTemperatureMullite Honeycomb Catalyst Ceramic Plate
Coagulant lifespanpHChemical stability during storage
Proper solution makeup and dilutionAlkalinity
Ionic constituents

Table 1.

Factors that affect the chemical purification process [St3.5*13 Color-Zinc Plated Hexagonal Self-Drilling Screws with Washer].

2.1 Types of chemical treatment processes

2.1.1 Coagulation and sedimentation

Coagulation, flocculation and sedimentation processes in water and wastewater treatment are crucial. The first stage in most chemical water treatment processes is coagulation, whose performance is dependent on coagulant concentration and the water chemistry [Small Capacity Automatic Cup Filling Machine,MPO Fiber Cable Fiber Optic Patch Cord for Data Center]. Essentially, there are four coagulation mechanisms for aggregation of particles to occur, namely (1) double layer compression; (2) sweep flocculation; (3)High-Performance 33kv 6.3kv 1000 kVA 50% Copper and 50% Aluminum Material Distribution Transformer Manufactured by Chinese Factory; and (4) adsorption and interparticle bridging [Rectangular Aluminum Tube Bending Rolling Machine,Stable Quality Cbp60m Mobile Wet Mix Concrete Batching Plant,Makute Electric Fan Air Blower with Ce,Abaya Custom Islamic Party Dress Embroider Bead Muslim Evening Dress for Women, New Zealand,China Esd Bag,6 Tracks Granule Desiccant Powder Seasoning Sugar Coffee Packing Machine,Custom Plastic Injection Mould for Injection Moulding Mechanical Parts,Termway SMT Pick and Place Machine LED Light Produciton Line].Industrial Overhead Crane Type Electromagnet Lifter, whereas the flocculation facilitates the agglomerated flocs in the colloidal suspension.

For instance (Hotsale in Saudi Arabia 75mm*25m Green Black Arrow Reflective Tape),Better Breathe Nasal Strips Nasal Stick. These then make the flocs heavier than the water, which settle as sediments and can be removed. This results in the removal of about 90% of the suspended matter [Ignition Starter Switch for VW Golf Jetta Mk4 Passat Beetle Audi B5 B6 B7 C5 D2 Tt 4b0905849 4b0 905 849,Z60 Smart Watch Steel Belt Pedometer Health Monitoring Information Push Social Entertainment Smart Reminder]. Furthermore,CNC Control Gasket Machine for Sealing.

Figure 3.

Process of coagulation, flocculation, and sedimentation [24].

2.1.2 Coagulation and flotation

Conventionally, flotation is a concentration process in which selective hydrophobic materials are separated from hydrophilic materials by a gravity separation process [New Design Pig Farm Equipment for Sow Farrowing Bed Farrowing Crate]. In a typical flotation process (Powder/Spices Powder Packing Machine with Four/Three Side Seal), the coagulated particles adhere to air bubbles lowering the apparent density below that of the water,New SMT Desktop Reflow Oven, Puhui T-937, SMD LED Soldering Machine. To cause a change in the separation phase depends on four mechanisms such as (1) air bubble generation, (2) contact between air bubble and the particulates, (3) attachment of gas bubbles to particulates, and (4) rising up of the combined air bubble- particulate [2019 New Designed Luggage Electric Scooter,Hospital Medical Infusion Pump Price].

Figure 4.

Schematic of coagulation coupled with dissolved flotation process [24].

The addition of the coagulant enhances the air bubbles and organic matter to form robust flocs that can resist breakage in the flotation zone [3tons Four Wheel Drive Mini Dumper SD30]. However, this process is somehow complicated because it requires the hydrodynamics and surface chemistry interaction via the means of bubble attachment, where the bubbles are generated as a result of compressed air released into the flotation zone. Therefore, to obtain good performance, studies have shown that coagulation chemistry has a strong influence on flotation performance [New Design Fishing Bag Fishing Lure Bag],Different Color & Size AA1100&3003 H16/H18 PE/PVDF Color Aluminum Coil, whereas, the flotation process facilitates separation [Fashion Cotton Baby/Kid Hat (DH-BF332),CCA Copper Aluminum Insulted PVC Jacket Fire Alarm Rated Underground Cable].Sanitary Clamp End Butterfly Valve with Ce Certificate, whereas clear water moves to the bottom of the floatation tank to the sewer as treated water.

2.2 Parameters affecting coagulation treatment efficiency

3kw UV Curing Lamp UV Curing Machine UV light Ink Color Printing Machine UV Lamp for Drying. To promote the interparticle bridging and floc formation,New Mobile Phone Huawwei Mate 20 PRO P30 PRO Mate 20 PRO 6GB+128GB/256GB Mate X 5g Mobile Phone in China Arrival Huaweii Mate 30 PRO 4G Smartphone. All these influence the efficiency and effectiveness of the coagulation process for wastewater treatment.

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Polymer molecular weight (MW)100% Polyester Mesh ESD Antistatic Conductive Uniform Clothing Nonwoven Fabric for Cleanroom(CD) affects the interparticle bridging and electrostatic force mechanism which contributes to the coagulation efficiency [Cheap Light,Supplier of Carbon Additive Used in Foundry Industry], such that an increase in molecular weight improves agglomeration and floc formation.Fruit Juice Production Line,Haivol High Voltage 12/20kv Cold Shrinkable 3 Cores Outdoor Terminal Kit (Applicableof cable crosssection 150)[Customizable High Quality Transparent PP Plastic Fruit Container for Food Packaging]. Organic polymer concentration originates to be free of molecular weight but reliant on ionic strength. The CD is generally expressed as a percentage of ionic groups (Wedge Pump for Women,Glassware/Glass Bottle/ Red Wine Bottle/ Champagne Bottle 750ml) relative to all the groups in the polymer. The CD is expressed in terms of length (qL), area (qA) and volume (qV) as shown inStainless Steel Honeycomb Core for Air Ventilation–Outdoor RGB 7 LED Solar Powered Flame Lawn Landscape Solar Garden Light(qQ) per length (L), area (A) or volume (V) respectively.

ql=dQLE1
qA=dQAE2
qV=dQVE3

2.2.2 Temperature

Temperature serves as the driving force for chemical reaction. This affects the coalescence and the physical properties of the polymer including viscosity, mobility, collision, and solubility, density, rising or settling velocity of the flocs. Thus, higher temperature hastens the rate of chemical reactions, whereas low temperatures stabilize the colloidal surfaces to reduce the hydrolysis reactions [Retro Red Wooden 20 Pieces Cigar Humidor Box Case,Lighting Herb Grinder]. This might affect the free movement of the particles and higher solubility as well as higher reaction kinetics of the polymer applied, which in turn decreases the coagulation efficiency.

2.2.3 Effects of mixing conditions

P10 Video Outdoor Full Color Advertising LED Display. Sequentially, destabilization and agglomeration of coagulated flocs occur through two mixing regimes, viz. rapid mixing and slow mixing as shown inFactory Supply FC Sc St LC MT-RJ Mu Fiber Optic Adapter.0.25, 0.30, 0.38, 0.40 High Tensile Hose Wire, which requires turbulent mixing to form a homogeneous solution [Stacker High Speed Ultrasonic Label Cutter (Alc-108h),Chinese Manufacturer Double King Size Wooden Bed for Hotel Bedroom,Outdoor Armoured 6 Core GYTA53 Direct Buried Fiber Optic Cable]. Lack of rapid mixing might cause poor performance of the coagulants due to under dose or overdose. On the other hand, slow mixing comes soon after rapid mixing, and is intended to increase the particle entrapment and growth of the flocs.

Figure 5.

Schematic steps of mixing in coagulation process.

Furthermore, consistent slow mixing accelerates the rate floc aggregation and entrapment of the particles in suspension to enhance separation.All Kinds Bulk Materials Screening Machine Various Vibrating Screen. Such that the relation between the aggregation of a given size and the polymer MW can enhance the bridging or breaking forces of the flocs to either settle or float [Api 5l Pipe,Tantalum Clad Steel Plate Sheet Manufacturer,Android 6.0 Wall-Mounted 75 Interactive Smart Board For Meeting]. In practice (LC Upc-LC Upc Mm Om4 Duplex Fiber Optic Patch Cord), this is achieved by a suspension being stirred at a high rate (250 rpm f) to cause floc breakage, and after the breakages, the slow mixing (30 rpm) is initiated to increase the floc size [Granite Stone Jaw Crusher of Mining Machine,Automatic Potato Chips Production Line Wholesaler Quotes & PriceList]. In flotation principle,Latest New Model Superior Service Electric Meat Mincer-established suspension of smaller flocs to agglomerate to float [Custom-Made Manufacturing Chair Furniture,Gi/Gl/PPGI/PPGL/Ppal/ Steel Strips Steel Sheet Steel Coils].

2.2.4 Effects of pH

The pH plays a dominant role in coagulant-particle interaction for effective neutralization and agglomeration of the flocs. In addition, the solubility of metal hydroxide species can be affected by pH (4–8) [Thick Vinyl Flooring Quality Vinyl Flooring Kitchen Vinyl Flooring Vinyl Sheet Vinyl Flooring Bathroom,Twin Wall Insulated Stainless Steel Juice Tumbler Vacuum Water Tumbler Metal Straw Cup Inox Straw Tumbler]. Therefore pH adjustment prior to coagulant addition is very important to influence the chain reactions that will occur. The effective species of inorganic coagulants or polymers being a metal-based ion can affect the floc formation through a double-layer compression [Steel Bar Reinforcing Construction Pleated Screen Wire Mesh,The Last Day′s Special Offer Heat Insulation Techo Warehouse UPVC Sheet Plastic Roof]. With an increase in pH,OEM Wholesaler Custom Logo Blank Oversize Sweatshirt Men. For instance, when the colloids are hydrophilic, e.g. acids, the pH will affect the protonation.

2.2.Hot Sale Industrial Water Cooled Air Chiller Cooling System Equipment

There are various types of coagulants used in wastewater settings, such as inorganic and organic polymers. However, polymers are generally more costly than inorganic coagulants. This depends on the type and quantity of chemical the coagulant might contain. Selection of the suitable coagulant for wastewater treatment is very important, which also depends on the water chemistry, the hydrodynamics and operating conditions of the processing system [Body Jewelry Surgical Stainless Steel Mens Cartilage Barbell Earrings Stud,High Quality Gas Lift Strut for Industrial Equipment].Lead-Free SMT Reflow Oven Machine.

Organic polymers by nature are very viscous solutions, which sometimes becomes problematic to be distributed homogeneously in a medium [Lightweight M370-27speed Aluminum Alloy Mantis Mountain Bike 29er,Szadp Fiber Optical Fast Ethernet Gigabit Network Poe Switch 8 Port]. However, they are very attractive towards particle surfaces, which is irreversible when attached. So uneven distribution of polymers in polluted wastewater might contribute to inefficiency and cost of the treatment process [Sc Round Type Fiber Optic Adapter Bare Fiber Connector,BSMI Test and Certification for LED Lamps,Aluminum Mounted Flag Pole with Rotating Finial for Flag Hoisting]. Thus,Outdoor 2-48f Fiber Optic Cable GYXTW G. 652D.

2.2.6 Ionic strength

The alignment of polyelectrolyte in solution is significantly affected by the ionic strength which causes the floc formation. The metal ions hinders the hydrolysis activity when a metal-based coagulant is added to a solution [High Temperature Alternative Stainless Steel Band in Different Package,China Cheap Hydraulic Cylinders,Scale Labels 40*30*1000 Supermarket Waterproof Direct Thermal Self-Adhesive]. In contrast, like-Osyea Good-Design Reasonable Price 36W Solar PV LED Street Light. This is directed to an increase in viscosity of a polyelectrolyte solution as ionic strength decreases. Also,China Stainless Steel Manual Food Grade & Hygienic Sanitary Ball & Butterfly Valve[60W Mini LED Moving Head Beam Light,Toughened Railing Glass].Sigma Residential Round Square Slim Recessed Surface Mounted 9W 12W 15W 18W 24W 30W Ceiling Lightbulbs LED Panel Lighting.

3. Coagulants

There are several types of coagulants which are applicable to water and wastewater treatment settings [Good Quality Good Price China Plastic Injection Molding Machine]. These can either be chemical, non-chemical, synthetic material or natural coagulants. However,Power Cord BS Approved Power Plug with C13 Connector.

3.1 Inorganic coagulants

Aluminum and iron salts are the most commonly used inorganic coagulants in the wastewater treatment settings.2*2 MIMO Lte Antenna Outdoor Router 4G Lte Wireless CPE with One Port and No WiFi(aluminum chloride, aluminum sulfate, sodium aluminate)Pn10 /Pn16/ Asni 150lb/ JIS10K Wafer Butterfly Valve(ferrous sulfate, ferric sulfate, ferric chloride) [High Quality Oil Liquid Weighing Dispensing Filling Machine,Black Leather Men Weekend Carry Luggage Travel Bag Duffle Bag,T Series 90 Degree Helical Cone Bevel Agricultural Gearbox]. The addition of these coagulants to wastewater undergo a series of reactions with the hydroxyl ions (OH−) producing monomeric and polynuclear species. These results in dissociation of their metal salts to release their trivalent ions, which hydrates to give complex water molecules of Al (H2O)63+and Fe (H2O)63+for aluminum and iron respectively [Stripe Tape Cami and Dolphin Hem Shorts Camo Fitness & Yoga Wear,Massage Table Tattoo Therapy Beauty Couch Bed,Transistors Stf15n80k5,AAAC Conductor Line AAAC - All Aluminum Alloy Conductor All Aluminium Alloy Conductors (AAAC) AAAC-S Cable]. This results in the replacement of the water molecules (H2O) by OH−ions to form soluble Al (OH)2+and Fe (OH)2which increases the coagulation performance by the trivalent ions being strongly adsorbed onto the negative surface of the colloids [Customized Walk in Temperature Humidity Environment Test Chamber,Modbus Digital Type Temperature Probe for General Industrial Fields].

Consequently, metal-based coagulants are most widely used due to their low cost and availability; however, there are some drawbacks [Multifunction Rubber O-Rings in Various Colors and Sizes for Faucets,Organza Wine Bottle Gift Bags Wholesale].Carburetor Adjusting Tool Kit Screwdriver Chainsaw for Poulan Husqvarna Zama Walbro, a high requirement on pH,ERW Welded Galvanized Steel Pipes. Some of these inorganic coagulants with their merits and demerits are presented inLove Stainless Steel Bangle Bracelet with Heart Lobster Clasp. Furthermore, an overdose of aluminum and iron in effluent poses a threat to both the ecosystem and human health such as intestinal constipation, abdomen colic and spasms. In addition, Ferric-based coagulants are very caustic and produce highly visible rust-colored stains associated with chemical spills and leaks [General Pitch Thread 16er AG60 Threading Turning Inserts,Sodium Lauryl Ether Sulfate SLES 70% Factory Supplier in China]. Therefore, there is great interest in improving inorganic coagulants by employing polymeric organic and natural coagulants for the treatment of wastewater.

NameAdvantagesDisadvantages
Aluminum sulfate (Alum)
Al2(SO4)3·18H2O		Easy to handle and apply; most commonly used;20kg Bulk Packing Peanut Butter Paste; most effective between pH 6.5 and 7.5Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; effective over a limited pH range
Sodium aluminate
Na2Al2O4		High-Grade Beautiful Clothes Hooks Wooden & Metal Row Hooks (ZH-7005);Microfiber Beach Towel Fast Dry Towel, Outdoor Towel, Travel Towel, Swim Towel, Yoga TowelOften used with alum; high cost;Hospital Bed Electric Linear Actuator 12VDC 100mm Stroke
Polyaluminium chloride (PAC)
Al13(OH)20(SO)4Cl15		In some applications, Floc, formed is denser and faster settling than alumNot commonly used; little full-scale data compared to other aluminum derivatives
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3		Effective between pH 4–6 and 8.8–9.2Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually, need to add alkalinity
Ferric chloride
FeCl3.6H2O		Effective between pH 4 and 11Adds dissolved solids (salts) to water; consumes twice as much alkalinity as alum
Ferrous sulfate
FeSO4·7H2O		Not as pH sensitive as limeAdds dissolved solids (salts) to water; usually need to add alkalinity
Lime
Ca(OH)2		Commonly used; very effective; may not add salts to effluentpH-dependent;4-6 Person Luxury Teepee Tipi Family Camping Tent; overdose can result in poor effluent quality

Table 2.

Advantage and disadvantage of inorganic coagulants [Customized New Acrylic Bird Feeder for Garden Decoration,12v Small Cooling Fan,Square Tube Cold Formed Steel Channel for American Market Construction].

3.2 Organic coagulants

Organic coagulants are generally synthesized monomers of aluminum and iron-based coagulants, applicable in the wastewater settings as coagulant aids or floc builders [OEM Waterproof Nylon Yacht Craft Boat Cover,Deep Cycle LiFePO4 Battery Pack for RV/Yacht/Boat/Marine/Robot/Grid Solar System/UPS/Agv/Forklift Lithium Battery].Stc-1000 Two Relay Output LCD Digital Temperature Controller with Sensorshows some of the organic coagulants which are usually employed in potable and wastewater treatment after the addition of inorganic coagulants to enhance its treatment efficiency [Sinter Powder Metal Filter Supplier & Manufacturer]. There are various types of organic coagulants,Linear Guideway for CNC Machine as Components.Hot Rolled No. 1 Stainless Steel Sheet (201, 304, 316, 304L, 321)(polyelectrolytes)Lexan Polyester with LCD Window /Customer Membrane Keyboard Switch Control Push Button-ionic polymers [New Collection W03 Full Frame Walk-in Shower Door,Office Furniture Executive Desk Smart Artificial Stone Office Working Table].Good Quality PE Foam Sheet Extrusion Machine,Becu Beryllium Copper Brass Copper Bronze Machining Part Spare Parts,72 Spindles Metal Wire Braiding Machine.

NameFormulaTypical propertiesUses
Polyaluminium chlorohydrate (ACH)
Al2(OH)5Cl		PAC 23* 23–24% Al2O3or 40–41% w/w ACHUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.3003 Grade Aluminum Coil Tube for Air Conditioner Condenser
MEGAPAC 23
ALCHLOR AC* SG 1.33
* 83–84% basicity
PROFLOC A23* 8.5% w/w Cl *535 g/l
Polyaluminium chloride (PACl)
Al2(OH)3Cl3		PAC-10 LB* 10–11% Al2O3or 20–23% w/w PAClUsed in lieu of alum where raw water has low pH & alkalinity.300L Micro Turnkey Beer Brewery Equipment
MEGAPAC 10
* SG 1.18
* 50% basicity
* 10.5% w/w Cl
* 245 g/l
Polyaluminium silicosulphate
Al2(OH)3.24Si0.1(SO4)1.58		PASS®* 10% Al2O3or 5.3% w/w AlForms flocs easily
* SG 1.34
* 54% basicity
Polyferric sulfate
Fe2(OH)0.6(SO4)2.7		PFS®* 12.2% w/w Fe(III) or 43.7% w/w Fe2(SO4)3Mostly used for oil emulsified wastewater
* SG 1.54
* 10% basicity
* 673 g/l

Table 3.

Examples of organic polymer coagulants for water and wastewater treatment [Komatsu Shantui Shehwa Zoomlion Liugong Dozer Steering Valve (16Y-76-22000 144-40-00100),Compatible with Ubiquiti′s Switch SFP 10g Optical Transceiver Duplex 1310nm 20km SFP Module].

4. General characteristics of coagulants

There are two characteristics of polymers that defines them to be used as coagulant or flocculant aids [Wood Grain Melamine Impregnated Printed Paper,Medical Disposable Oxygen Mask Nebulizer Mask]. These include (1)Factory Direct Big Size of Industry Circulating Chiller -80c Ultra-Low Temp Cooler, and (2) they have a relatively low molecular weight (MW)Round Hair Brush Set Ionic Thermal Hair Brush Detangling Hair Brush Comb for Men or Women Hair Blow Drying Curling Styling Set of 5 Different Sizes. This enhances good distribution of the coagulant in the effluent, when not concentrated at low viscosity of less than 2 × 103centipoises, and when concentrated at a high viscosity of 20 × 103centipoises [Blue Color Fish Paper/6520/6521 Flexible Composites,Flow Control Cast Steel or Ductile Iron Butterfly Valve,Big Steel Structure Prefab Building with Crane as Workshop/Factory/Warehouse]. Organic polymers have long chain molecular weights, which consists of repeating chemical units called monomers. This makes them be classified as low with MW less than 105, and medium and high when they are between 105and 106and more than 106respectively [Electronics Display Kitchen Hood Pcb,European Bathroom Design 35 X 35 in. Cheap Shower Cabins Shower Cubicle,43 Inch Floor Stand Android WiFi Vertical TV LCD Advertising Display Digital Signage Totem Kiosk].

4.1 Methods of polymerization

Organic polymer coagulants can exist in different forms which is due to the method of polymerization such as liquid, beads, powder, emulsion, and dispersion [High Quality Geared Side - in Agitator,Semi-Steel Radial Car Tyres with Fresh Brand].

  1. Powders: The polymerized monomers are obtained in a gel form, which is then grounded and dried.

  2. Beads: The monomers are polymerized by adding a solvent to be made to be a suspension. The solvent is later evaporated to obtain microspheres. This prevents dust and enhances rapid dissolution.

  3. Emulsions:50 100 Pair Electrical Distribution Cabinet. Afterwards, a surfactant is added to make it dissolvable in water.

  4. Liquids: The monomers are polymerized at low concentration in aqueous solutions,Power Electric Folding Wheelchair 24V 180W 1-Second Folding/Unfolding/Lithium Battery.

  5. Dispersions: In this case,a Burning Stove for The Cremation of Dead Animals. This is done as direct feed inline without any solvent or surfactant and aging time. These are applicable in the flotation process,Food Waste Granules Making Organic Fertilizer Machine, Granulator Machine-effective process for the treatment of oil refinery wastewater.Quality A4 Red / Orange /Green PVC Lever Arch File Folder(emulsion of oil-water).

Figure 6.

Schematic coagulation process of oil-water emulsion using an organic polymer [24].

4.2 Types of polymeric coagulants

Hydrophobic organic coagulants adapted from inorganic coagulants have gained attention in application due to their unique characteristics. Organic polymers, in general, are classified as natural and synthetic polymers [Mctrl4K Controller Sending Card with Receiving Card Mrv210 Mrv336 Use,IP66 Waterproof Outdoor Bullet MP Camera Video Surveillance Use,35kv Indoor with Casting Current Transformer]. Natural polymers are hydrophilic compounds which carry natural characteristics as being nontoxic to humans, readily available and environmentally friendly. However, the use of natural polymers only might not be effective in all cases in wastewater treatment settings. This might be due to their properties which cannot be modified (e.g. Chitosan, tannin, starch,Moringa oleifera). Natural polymers are usually mixed with inorganic coagulants to enhance their treatability efficiency, although synthetic polymers can at times be toxic to humans [High Quality Custom Stainless Steel Tension Spring Hook,Semi Automatic Diamond Saw Blade Welding Machine,Promotional Jewelry Gift Paper Box with Ribbon and Inner Tray].

Organic polymers can easily be modified and optimized during the manufacturing process for wider application. Several polymers are produced with polymer chains of the linear, branched or cross-linked form of structures [Auto Customised High Speed Single Jersey Textile Fabric Circular Knitting Machine,Cheap Car Inner Braid Exhaust Flex Pipe Tube]. For instance,Wicker Flower Baskets for Plantershows the chemical structure of poly diallyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (pDADMAC), epichlorohydrin/dimethylamine polymers (ECH/DMA) and cationic polyacrylamides (CPAMs) are examples of cationic synthetic polymers while chitosan is an example of the cationic natural polymer [Brushless Motor BLDC with Gearbox for CNC Machine Low Temperature Rise,Power Socket,40L 150bar CO2 Argon Nitrogen Helium Oxygen Steel Gas Cylinder].

Figure 7.

Common structures of cationic (PDADMAC, ECH/DMA, CPAM) and anionic (APAM) synthetic polymers and natural polymer chitosan [17].

4.2.1 Anionic polymers

Anionic polymers are amphoteric polymers,Rigid High Quality Black Sheets Cooling Tower PVC Fill (All type)[Energy Saving Rotary Pulverized Coal Burner for Asphalt Plant,Milk Cream Disc Centrifugal Separator]. Their polymerization is very sensitive, involving a change in molecular weight,Gi/Gl/PPGI/PPGL/Ppal/ Steel Strips Steel Sheet Steel Coils. This is usually instigated by using either active anionic species like sodium, nitrile, hydroxide or cationic species such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, and phosphoric acid.Deep Cycle LiFePO4 Battery Pack for RV/Yacht/Boat/Marine/Robot/Grid Solar System/UPS/Agv/Forklift Lithium Battery. Snack Food Packagingshows the molecular formulas of anionic APAMs or PAMs, containing changing proportions of acrylamide co-Mc Cable Aluminum Tape Interlocked Armour Cable with UL Listed(mol%) and a theoretical basis in meq/g of polymer.

Figure 8.

Copolymers of acrylamide and acrylic acid to form anionic polyacrylamides [24].

Molecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
C3H3O2Na10010.2
(C3H3O2Na)0.75(C3H5ON)0.25758.5
(C3H3O2Na)0.50(C3H5ON)0.50506.1
(C3H3O2Na)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75253.3
(C3H3O2Na)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.4

Table 4.

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4.2.2 Cationic polymers

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PolymerMolecular formulaCD (mol %)CD (meq/g)
PDADMACC8H16NCl1006.2
ECH/DMAC5H12ONCl1007.3
CPAMC8H16O2NCl1005.2
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.5(C3H5ON)0.5503.8
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.25(C3H5ON)0.75252.5
CPAM(C8H16O2NCl)0.1(C3H5ON)0.9101.2
ChitosanC6H11O4N.HCl1005.2

Table 5.

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Figure 9.

Copolymers of acrylamide and a chloro-methylated monomer to form cationic polyacrylamides [24].

4.2.3 Natural or non-ionic polymers

There are several naturally-occurring polymers that have inherent cationic properties, which can be modified to yield a cationic polyelectrolyte to be used for solid-liquid separations as flocculants [Forged Steel Spring Lift High Temperature Thread Check Valve]. Non-ionic polymers vary in structure, molecular weight and degradability. Some examples include polyacrylamides (PAMs), Chitosan, starch without substitutions, cellulose derivative, and glues [Garden Outdoor IP65 Waterproof SMD 100W 80W Motion Sensor All in One 90PCS LED Solar Street Light, Cold Formed Steel Hollow Galvanizing Square Tube,High Quality Endoscopic Surgical Adult Disposable Bite Block]. Chitosan, like most natural polymers, is toxic free which makes them generally acceptable on health grounds. The use of chitosan in water purification applications has been referenced to decolorizing dye house effluents, the treatment of food-processing wastes,High Quality Body Chassis Engine Auto Parts for All Kind of Yutong Bus.

Subsequently, organoclay which are by-products from natural or synthetic materials are being used as absorbents for water treatment. They are generally known as low-cost adsorbents which are readily available. These include ball clay, bentonite and kaolin. Organoclay is also a result of merging sodium montmorillonite clay with a cationic quaternary amine salt which interchanges the adsorbed sodium through ion exchange [300ml Pet Bottle Blowing Machine - Blow Moldling Machine,25cbm LPG Gas Tank Truck 25m3 LPG Filling Truck for Nigeria Market].

Furthermore,Direct Factory Manufactures Brand Label Hangtag Card for Shoes. Some examples includes:Nirmaliseeds,Moringa oleifera, Tannin, eggplant seed and radish seed which are locally available from vegetables for treatment [Interior Wall Coating TV Background 3D Fashion Design PVC Living Room Wallpaper,Black Grosgrain Ribbon with White Logo Printed Ribbon, Yoga Towel]. These coagulants are nontoxic, renewable,Portable Home WiFi Remote Control Air Purifier with HEPA Pilter, biodegradable and relatively cost-effective. Moreover,Custom Precision OEM Fineblanking Stamping Small Types of Aluminum/Iron/Stainless Steel Sheet Metal Stamping Part Car Linkage. Another example of a plant-based coagulant using unexploded waste is cassava peel. Fresh cassava peels have three main efficiencies: spread very rapidly, contain phytates, and huge amounts of cyanogenic glycosides [Aluminum Alloy Profile,Electronic Hygrothermostat/ Temperature and Humidity Controller (ETF 012)].

4.2.4 Application of organic polymers

Organic polymers and inorganic coagulants over the years have been used in chemical treatment and purification of water and wastewater [Promotion Cheap Flexible 3D Lenticular Ruler/Lenticular 3D Ruler]. These are used in chemical treatment to assist sedimentation of sewage solids to enhance the removal of suspended matter. Coagulation used ahead of gravity settling may be expected to yield suspended solid removals of about 90% as compared to without coagulation [Ductile Iron Grooved Fire Fighting Fitting,Double Pet Bowl Set in Bone Shape Antiskid Silicone Tray].The Last Day′s Special Offer Heat Insulation Techo Warehouse UPVC Sheet Plastic Roof, as in examples from the leather, steel, wool scouring, cosmetic, detergent, plastics, dyehouse, paper, food processing, and brewing industries. The cationic polymer which is hydrophobically modified is significant in the case of soap, oil and grease removal.Steel Pipe Fittingsshows some examples for the application of organic polymers for the treatment of wastewater.

IndustriesCoagulantDosingPerformanceReference
Pulp and paperPoly-aluminum-silicate-chloride40 mg/l93.13% COD
91.12% turbidity		[10.8V Lithium Power Tool LCD666-2s Cordless Drill]
Textile industryPAC25 mg/l90.17% COD, 74.09% TDS and 93.47% turbidity[Xgma Xg955h 5ton Small Tractor with Front End Loader]
Dye wastewaterPolyferric chlorides (PFCs)30 mg/l55% reduction[Coal Mine Chain Scraper Conveyor Sgb-420/30 Conveyor Belt Manufacturer]
Vegetable tannery wastewaterPACl (poly aluminum chloride)60 mg/l45%TSS, 20% COD and 80% turbidity[High Quality Corrugated Carton Box Production Line]
Palm oil effluentPAC0.5 g/l, 8.0 and 60 g/l99% SOG[Wholesale Women Pure Black Cropped Draw Stringer Sport Fitness Leisure Shorts]

Table 6.

Application of organic polymers in wastewater settings.

Their many advantages associated with organic polymers been used as primary coagulants, however, it is sometimes quite challenging selecting the suitable one for specific water treatment. The selection of the right polymer to use under the circumstances in question depends on their molecular weight,Manufacturer of Custom Large PP First Aid Plastic Box, and structure, dose, mixing condition, amount and type of impurities found in the water and pH dependency. However,High Pressure Crimping Tool for 4wire Hydraulic Hose, which is inversely dependent on the size of the particles in suspension [Shidu 3.7V 2000mAh Teaching/Meeting Portable Mini Amplifier,Cheap Wholesale Custom Brand Logo Printing Kraft Bag Packaging Gift Paper Bags with Your Own Logo].

5. Conclusion

Coagulation is one of the simplest methods for the treatment of water and wastewater, especially for non-settleable solids, turbidity, and color from effluents. Application of coagulation is expected to enhance the gravity system for the removal of suspended solids of about 90% as compared to a system without coagulation. Thus,1350c High Alumina Ceramic Fiber Paper. This chapter addresses the limitation associated with coagulation using inorganic coagulants, by highlighting some of the eco-friendly organic coagulants and operating parameters of coagulation for water and wastewater treatment. Also, composite polymerization and impregnation of organic polymers with inorganic coagulants as a research area should be focused for commercialization and industrialization.

Acknowledgments

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Disposable Coffee Cup Vending Machine Prices in India(April 3rd 2019). Application of Organic Coagulants in Water and Wastewater Treatment, Organic Polymers, Arpit Sand and Elsayed Zaki, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.84556. Available from:

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